THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


TRUE    TALES 


OF 


THE     INSECTS 


SCHIZODACTYLUS   MONSTROSUS. 


TRUE     TALES 


OF 


THE     INSECTS 


BY 

L.    N.    BADENOCH 

AUTHOR  OF    "  ROMANCE   OF  THE    INSECT  WORLD 


WITH    FORTY-FOUR    ILLUSTRATIONS  BY  MARGARET  J.   D.  BADENOCH 


NEW    YORK:    E.    P.    BUTTON    &    CO. 

LONDON  :   CHAPMAN   &   HALL,  LD. 

1899 


PRINTED   BY 

WILLIAM   CLOWES  AND  SONS,   LIMITED, 
LONDON   AND  BECCLES. 


INSCRIBED    TO   THE 
DEAR    MEMORY   OF    D  . 


M368535 


PREFACE. 


A  FEW  of  the  Essays  in  this  volume  have  been 
published  in  serials.  ''Symbols  of  Psyche"  originally 
appeared  as  an  article  in  Tke  S2tnday  at  Home.  "  Day- 
flying  Moths  "  and  "  The  Case  Moths,"  but  for  some 
slight  alterations,  and  some  additions,  have  appeared 
in  Knowledge  and  Appletons  Popular  Science  Monthly, 
and  I  have  to  thank  the  editors  of  those  periodicals 
for  kind  permission  to  reproduce  them  here. 

To  Mr.  W.  F.  Kirby  and  Mr.  C.  O.  Waterhouse,  of 
the  British  Museum  (Natural  History),  I  must  express 
my  thanks  for  the  kindness  with  which  they  have 
always  helped  me  with  the  literature  of  the  subject, 
and  have  given  me  the  free  use  of  the  valuable 
collections  under  their  charge. 

LONDON, 

December,  1898. 


CONTENTS, 


ORTHOPTERA. 
CURSORIA. 

CHAPTER   I. 

THE   DEVIL'S   RIDING-HORSE 

PAGE 

"  Devotional "  attitude — Legends  and  superstitions  arising  therefrom — 
Meaning  of  habit — The  tiger,  not  the  saint  of  the  insect  world  — 
Not  only  carnivorous,  but  pugnacious,  and  a  cannibal — Voracity 
not  limited  to  insects — Modification  of  front  legs — Their  principal 
function — Typical  development  of  an  insect's  leg — Modification  in 
detail  of  leg  of  Mantis — The  limb  in  repose — Its  secondary  func- 
tions— The  other  legs — Modification  of  prothorax — Its  remarkable 
elongation  and  mobility — Development  shows  importance — Not 
legs  and  thorax  alone,  whole  organization  in  conformity  with  a 
carnivorous  life  :  head,  sense-organs,  etc.,  organs  of  flight — Atrophy 
of  wings — Coptopteryx  females  ...  ...  ...  ...  3 


CHAPTER    II. 

THE   DEVII/S  RIDING-HORSE  (MANTID^E) — continued. 

Egg-laying  and  the  egg-capsules — Capsule  of  Mantis  religiosa;  situa- 
tion of  eggs,  subsidiary  parts,  consistency,  explanation  of  manner 
of  formation — Capsules  of  other  Mantidae — Parasites — Metamor- 
phoses of  Mantis — Emergence,  appearance,  and  interesting  life  of 
young — Development  of  organs  of  flight — Nymphs  compared  with 
sub-apterous  or  apterous  adults — Latter  with  apterous  Phasmidas — 
Protective  and  Aggressive  resemblance — Modifications  of  forms  in 


xii  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

general,  of  the  Ground  Species,  of  the  Plant  Types — Special  protec- 
tive resemblance — Alluring  colouring — Aggressive  mimicry— Geo- 
graphical distribution  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  16 


CHAPTER    III. 

WALKING-STICKS  AND  WALKING-LEAVES   ( 

General  peculiarities — Appearance  grotesque — Mesothorax  often  rela- 
tively very  large — Yet  tegmina  usually  of  small  size,  or  absent, 
even  where  lower  wings  are  very  largely  developed — In  such  cases 
provision  for  defence  of  latter  organs  essential — Characteristics  and 
habits — Are  herbivorous — Their  immobility — Reasons  and  use 
thereof — More  means  of  defence  ;  prickles  and  spines,  power  of 
ejecting  nauseous  fluid,  aquatic  habits — Curious  power  of  repro- 
ducing lost  or  injured  limbs — Eggs  in  Phasmidas  generally  of  a 
most  remarkable  nature — Specially  exemplified  in  eggs  of  Phyllium 
— Change  during  scramble  out  of  egg  ;  and  after— Change  in 
colour  at  different  periods  of  life  ...  ...  ...  ...  41 


CHAPTER    IV. 

WALKING-STICKS  AND   WALKING-LEAVES    (PHASMID^E)— COntimied. 

Marvellous  imitative  resemblance  of  vegetative  objects — Walking-sticks 
proper — Beautiful  and  giant  winged  forms — Bizarre  shapes  galore 
— End  gained  by  this  mimicry  of  course  protection  against  attack 
— There  is  perhaps  no  other  group  of  insects  which  in  form  and 
colour  are  so  generally  imitative — Leaf-insects — Resemblance  to 
leaves  displayed  by  tegmina,  also  by  other  parts — Female  alone 
possessed  of  large  leaf- like  tegmina — Tegmen  of  female  Phyllium 
from  various  points  of  view  an  exceptional  structure — Success  of 
artifice  demonstrated — Distribution  of  family — That  Walking-sticks 
come  of  a  remote  antiquity — That  they  are  a  singularly  isolated 
group  ..  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  .  .  60 


CONTENTS.  xiii 

SALTATORIA. 
CHAPTER  V. 


LOCUSTS  AND   GRASSHOPPERS 

Series  Cursoria  and  Saltatoria  —  To  two  families  of  latter,  term  Grass- 
hopper applied—  Acridiidae,  prominent  characteristics  —  Anatomy  — 
Organs  of  special  sense—  Air-sacs  —  Acridiidae  remarkable  amongst 
Orthoptera  for  possession  of  —  Arrangement  in  Rocky  Mountain 
Locust  —  Use  —  Locust  an  aeronaut  —  To  this  fact  largely  due  its 
enormous  powers  of  flight  —  Dilatable  tracheae  —  Locust,  how  en- 
dowed intellectually  —  Gift  of  "  song  "  —  Of  great  importance  to  the 
creatures  —  Apparatus  for  producing  sound  —  The  music,  charac- 
teristic of  male  —  Stridulation  during  flight  —  Acridian  ears  —  Three 
forms  —  Minute  structure  —  Ears  in  both  sexes,  as  in  most  species  — 
Function  of  acoustic  organs  difficult  to  determine  —  Possible  solu- 
tion of  difficulty  —  Oviposition  ;  and  philosophy  of  egg-mass  — 
Migratory  locusts  may  make  a  deposit  of  eggs  at  more  than  one 
place  during  migration  —  Egg-enemies  —  Process  of  escape  of  the 
young  from  the  egg,  of  much  interest  —  Post-embryonic  develop- 
ment of  Acridiidae  —  Change  of  colour  in  course  of  development  ...  81 


CHAPTER   VI. 

LOCUSTS   AND   GRASSHOPPERS   (ACRIDIID^) — continued. 

Most  species  of  Acridiidae  not  migratory — Species  ascertained  to  be 
migratory — Migratory  disposition  not  caused  by  anatomical  dif- 
ferences :  migratory  species  exist  in  countries  without  giving  rise 
to  swarms— Ravaging  power  of  migratory  locusts  ;  huge  size  of 
swarms — Famine  and  pestilence  probable  sequences — No  law  of 
periodicity  governing  destructive  flights — Phenomenon  of  migration 
explained  by  excessive  multiplication — Other  causes,  both  imme- 
diate and  remote — Remarkable  manifestations  of  instinct  attend 
migration — Disappearance  of  locusts  from  a  spot  invaded  appa- 
rently obscure  :  they  again  migrate  after  growth  to  land  of  ances- 
tors— "  Voetgangers,"  interesting  points  in  their  natural  history — 
How  these  wingless  locusts  cross  rivers — Distance  to  which  swarms 


xiv  CONTENTS. 


may  migrate — Length  of  a  single  flight — Proof  of  power  of  pro- 
longed flight  that  they  are  able  to  cross  large  bodies  of  water — 
Natural  enemies,  vertebrate  and  invertebrate — Some  species  of 
Acridiidae  present  an  unusual  aspect — Oedipodides,  striking  cases 
of  colour  difference — Is  correlative  with  locality — Interesting  Ere- 
mobiens  ;  modified  to  extraordinary  extent  for  desert  life  ...  106 


CHAPTER   VII. 

GREEN    GRASSHOPPERS   (LOCUSTIDjE). 

Distinguishing  characters — Absence  of  air-vesicles  connected  with 
tracheal  system — Ocelli  generally  imperfect — Peculiar  head-orna- 
ment— Locusta,  ovipositor — Life-histories — Deposition  of  eggs  in 
galls,  of  Meconema  varium,  QiXiphidium  ensiferum — Development 
of  Microcentrum  retinerve  —  Tibial  ears,  their  structure  and 
functions — Musical  organs  and  music — Katydids,  their  pertinacity 
—As  pets— Ill-effects  of  confinement— Food-habits— Anabrus, 
increase  to  large  numbers — Perfection  of  resemblance  of  tegmina 
to  leaves — Defence  of  a  positive  nature — Resemblance  to  Stick 
Insects — Cave-dwellers — Remarkable  forms — Gigantic  and  ugly 
Anostostoma — Of  the  curious  genus  Deinacrida — Schizodactylus 
monstrosus — Eumegalodonidas  ...  ...  ...  ...  141 


LEPIDOPTERA. 

CHAPTER   VIII. 

SYMBOLS   OF  PSYCHE. 

Fable  of  Psyche — Its  origin — In  its  later  aspects — Conspicuous  beauty 
and  abundance  of  the  Symbols — Favourite  resorts — Not  only 
gregarious,  but  migratory — Twilight  fliers — Of  a  quarrelsome  dis- 
position— Peculiarities  of  highest  interest— Different  females  of 
Papilio  memnon  —  Perfect  protective  imitative  resemblance  of 
Kallima,  the  leaf-butterflies  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  163 


CONTENTS.  xv 


CHAPTER   IX. 

DAY-FLYING   MOTHS. 

PAGE 

Lepidoptera  divided  into  Rhopalocera  (butterflies,  or  day-flyers)  and 
Heterocera  (moths,  or  night-flyers) — Antennae  unsatisfactory  as  a 
classificatory  basis  :  no  one  set  of  characters  will  serve  as  an  infal- 
lible guide  to  distinguish  moths  from  butterflies — "  The  series  of 
affinities  in  nature  a  concatenation  or  continuous  series " — This 
more  or  less  gradual  blending  a  strong  argument  in  favour  of  com- 
munity of  descent — Castniidae  in  some  respects  combine  the  cha- 
racters of  both  Lepidopterous  divisions — Have  most  affinities  with 
moths — Megathymus  yucccc,  the  Yucca  Borer,  an  interesting 
aberrant  form — Regarded  by  some  as  a  genuine  butterfly — Habi- 
tat, appearance,  habits — Depredations  committed  :  white  powdery 
bloom  :  funnel-like  tube,  characteristic  of  larva — Brilliant  and 
graceful  Uraniidae  proved  to  belong  to  the  Heterocera — Urania 
boisduvalii,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  Lepidoptera  known  ;  and 
others — Migratory  habits  of  day-flying  moths  ...  ...  ...  184 


CHAPTER   X. 

THE   CASE   MOTHS  (PSYCHID/E). 

In  structure  of  female,  and  in  habit,  the  strangest  and  most  abnormal 
of  all  Lepidoptera — Females  have  become  degenerate — Young  sack- 
bearers  at  home — Ingenuity  in  construction  of  case — Metura 
elongata  a  most  interesting  architect — Lictor  Moth — Animula 
huebneri — Curious  case  of  Animula  herrichii — Enlargement,  re- 
pair, locomotion,  temporary  suspension,  complete  withdrawal, 
mode  of  moving  and  retaining  position  within  case — Coming  of 
Age  of  male—  Supposed  assistance  of  long  sticks  at  event — After- 
life, and  general  characteristics — Want  of  homogeneousness  in 
perfect  state  of  insects  of  this  group— Probable  cause  of  dis- 
appearance of  beauty  of  male — Singular  rarity  of  moths  consider- 
ing abundance  of  cases — P'emales  perpetual  prisoners,  living  and 
dying  within  larva  habitaculum  ...  ...  ...  ...  203 


xvi  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   XI. 

THE   HAWK   MOTHS   (SPHINGID^E). 

PAGE 

Leading  characteristics  of  this  favourite  group — Posterior  spine  or 
caudal  horn — Sphinx-like  attitude — Highly  specialized  condition  of 
some  of  the  structural  characters,  of  peculiar  interest— Macroglos- 
sinse  —  Chcerocampinae  — Ambulicinae  —  Sphinginae  —  Manducinae 
— Smerinthinae — Sphingidae  have  their  metropolis  in  Tropics — 
Occasional  visitors  from  sunny  climes  ...  ...  ...  219 

CHAPTER   XII. 
THE  DEATH'S  HEAD  MOTH. 

In  several  respects  a  most  remarkable  species — "  Grim  feature  " — It 
has  a  voice — Many  theories  put  forward  to  account  for  the  cry — 
Sound  emitted  by  pupa — By  larva  ;  its  nature  and  cause — Moth  of 
superior  dimensions,  of  nocturnal  habit — Not  surprising  it  should 
be  an  object  of  alarm  to  the  superstitious— As  a  bee-robber — That 
its  stridulous  voice  controls  the  bees — It  is  excessively  sluggish — 
At  sea — That  it  is  nomadic  in  habit — Times  of  appearance  in 
imago  ;  in  larva— Single-  or  double-brooded  with  us — On  rearing 
the  Death's  Head  Moth  ...  ...  ...  ...  230 

INDEX  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...    245 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


NO.  PAGE 

SCHIZODACTYLUS  MONSTROSUS  ...  ...  Frontispiece 

1.  HARPAX  TRICOLOR  AND  PSEUDOCREOBOTRA...             Headpiece  3 

2.  MANTIS  RELIGIOSA  IN  DEVOTIONAL  ATTITUDE         ...            ...  7 

3.  A.  FORE-LEG  OF  MANTIS  RELIGIOSA  ;  B.  LEG  OF  A  BEETLE 

(LUCANUS  CERVUS)          ...            ...           ...           ...            ...  10 

4.  A  STICK-LIKE  MANTIS  (LEPTOCOLA  GRACILIMA)  WITH  ATRO- 

PHIED WINGS      ...           ...           ...           ...            ...           ...  ii 

5.  HEAD  AND  PROTHORAX  OF  MANTIS  RELIGIOSA,  WITH  INSERTION 

OF  ANTERIOR  LEGS         ...           ...           ...            ...           ...  13 

6.  EGG-CAPSULES  OF  MANTID^E            ...            ...             Headpiece  16 

7.  EGG-CAPSULE  OF  MANTIS  RELIGIOSA             ...            ...            ...  19 

8.  A  GROUND  MANTIS  (EREMIAPHILA  TYPHON),  FROM  EGYPT  ...  26 

9.  CH^ERADODIS  RHOMBICOLLIS,  WITH  PROTHORACIC  EXPANSION 

AND  LEAF-LIKE  ELYTRA                ...            ...            ...            ...  27 

10.  DEROPLATYS  TRUNCATA,  FROM  BORNEO       ...           ...            ...  32 

11.  GONGYLUS  TRACHELOPHYLLUS,  WITH  NUMEROUS  \  FOLIACEOUS 

LOBES    ...            ...            ...            ...            ...            ...            ...  33 

12.  TROPIDODERUS  RHODOMUS               ...           ...           ...           ...  47 

13.  EGGS  OF  DIFFERENT  WALKING-STICKS        ...           ...           ...  53 

14.  ACROPHYLLA  TlTAN               ...             ...             ...               Headpiece  60 

15.  A  STICK  INSECT  (PHANOCLES  CURVIPES),  FROM  ST.  VINCENT  61 

1 6.  CEROYS  L ACINI ATUS,   FROM    NICARAGUA  :    IRREGULAR   LEAF- 

LIKE  EXPANSIONS  PROTRUDE  ALL  OVER  IT            ...           ...  68 

17.  GRAEFFEA  COCCOPHAGUS    ...           ...           ...           ...            ...  74 

1 8.  A  WALKING-LEAF  (PHYLLIUM  SCYTHE),  FROM  SILHET           ...  75 


xviii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

NO.  PAGE 

19.  A  GRASSHOPPER,  TRUXALIS  PHARAONIS       ...             Headpiece  81 

20.  TERATODES  MONTICOLLIS   ...           ...           ...           ...            ...  93 

21.  PROSCOPIA    IN^EQUALIS,   WHICH    BEARS    A    GREAT    GENERAL 

RESEMBLANCE  TO  A  STICK  INSECT            ...            ...           ...  107 

22.  A  VERY  ABERRANT  AND  BEAUTIFUL  GRASSHOPPER  (PNEUMORA 

SCUTELLARIS)     ...           ...           ...           ...           ...           •••  1 19 

23.  METHONE  ANDERSSONI,  SPECIALLY  REMARKABLE  FOR  ITS  COM- 

PLEX ORGANS  FOR  PRODUCING  SOUND     ...        ,  ...           ...  131 

24.  PTEROCHROZA  OCELLATA,  ITS  TEGMINA  RESEMBLING  LEAVES  142 

25.  A  CAVE-DWELLER  (DOLICHOPODA  PALP  ATA)               ...           ...  143 

26.  EUMEGALODON    ENSIFER,   ONE   OF    THE    MOST    REMARKABLE    OF 

THE   LOCUSTID^,   FROM   JAVA            ...                 ...                 ...                 ...  151 

27.  SYMBOLS  OF  PSYCHE,  ETC.  ...            ...            ...             Headpiece  163 

28.  THE  DRAGON'S  BRIDE        ...           ...           ...           ...            ...  165 

29.  HETAIRA  ESMERALDA,  FROM  BRAZIL.    A  CLEAR-WING  BUTTER- 

FLY       ...           ...            ...           ...           ...            ...           ...  169 

30.  THE  CALLIPER  BUTTERFLY  (CHARAXES  KADENII),  FROM  JAVA  : 

SUCKING  LIQUID  FROM  A  MUDDY  SPOT    ...           ...           ...  170 

31.  MORPHO   MENELAUS,   FROM  TROPICAL  AMERICA.     BRILLIANT 

METALLIC  BLUE  AND  BLACK       ...           ...           ...           ...  171 

32.  CHERITRA  JAFFRA  ;  BROWN  WITH  WHITE  TAILS  ;  FROM  BURMAH  178 

33.  DIFFERENT  FEMALES  OF  THE  MALAYAN  PAPILIO  MEMNON   ...  179 

34.  A  LEAF-BUTTERFLY  (KALLIMA  INACHIS),  IN  FLIGHT  AND  IN 

REPOSE...           ...            ...           ...                                       ...  182 

35.  URANIA  BRAZILIENSIS  ;  MIGRATORY;  FROM  BRAZIL    Headpiece  184 

36.  CASTNIA  EUDESMIA,  FROM  CHILI    ...           :..            ...           ...  189 

37.  YUCCA   BORER   (MEGATHYMUS   YUCC&),   IN   FLIGHT   AND    IN 

REPOSE  ;  FROM  THE  UNITED  STATES        ...            ..            ...  191 

•38.  URANIA  BOISDUVALII  ;   GREEN  AND  VELVETY   BLACK  ;  FROM 

CUBA     ...           ...           ...                         ...                         ...  196 

39.  LARVA  CASE  (METURA  ELONGATA),  FROM  SYDNEY    ...           ...  207 

40.  MALE  AND  FEMALE  METURA  ELONGATA      ...           ...           ...  213 

41.  A  LONG  PROBOSCIS  (COCYTIUS  CLUENTIUS)  ...           ...           ...  221 

42.  HAWK  MOTH  (LOPHOSTETHUS  DUMOLINII),  FROM  PORT  NATAL  225 

43.  THE  DEATH'S  HEAD  MOTH              ...            ...             Headpiece  230 


ORTHOPTERA 


TRUE  TALES  OF  THE  INSECTS 


C  URSO RI A. 
CHAPTER  I. 

THE    DEVIL'S    RIDING-HORSE 


FlG.   i. — Harpax  tricolor  and 
Pseudocreobotra . 


The  Devotional  Attitude. 


PROBABLY  no  other  insects  are  surrounded  with  such  a 
halo  of  legend  and  superstition,  none  have  acquired  the 
same  reputation  for  wisdom  and  saintliness,  as  those 
technically  known  as  the  Mantidse.  The  character  they 
bear  is  one  of  long  standing,  and  almost  world-wide 


4  TRUE   TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

fame.  It  originates  in  the  insects'  habitual  attitude, 
that  appears  devotional ;  but  appearances  are  risky 
things  to  judge  by.  For  hours  they  rest  motionless 
upon  the  four  hind  limbs  in  the  characteristic  posture, 
with  the  head  raised  upon  the  elongated  and  semi- 
erect  prothorax,  and  with  the  front  legs  entirely  free,  half- 
opened,  the  joints  clasped  together,  held  like  uplifted 
hands  in  prayer.  To  our  illogical  and  superstitious  fore- 
fathers, what  could  this  position  denote  if  not  devotion  ? 
The  name  Mantis  (diviner,  soothsayer,  seer,  prophet), 
it  is  said,  was  bestowed  on  the  insect  by  the  Greeks, 
in  accordance  with  the  idea  that,  when  in  its  normally 
motionless  pose,  it  is  engaged  in  meditation  on  futurity. 
Amongst  the  Turks  and  Arabs  it  is  of  a  quasi-sacred 
nature,  and  they  hold  that  it  prays  with  its  face  towards 
Mecca.  One  again  meets  with  the  notion  of  its  peculiar 
habit  as  an  act  of  invocation  or  piety  in  the  name  of 
Prega-Diou,  or  Prie-Dieu,  as  it  is  called  by  the  Pro- 
vengals,  and  in  Italy  ;  in  Portugal,  it  is  the  Louva  Dios  ; 
while  the  English-speaking  nations,  somewhat  clumsily, 
dub  it  the  praying  insect ;  and  many  more  or  less  similar 
common  names — preacher,  nun,  saint,  suppliant,  mendi- 
cant— applied  to  it  in  Southern  Europe,  testify  to  the 
general  reverence  with  which  it  is  regarded.  In  Lan- 
guedoc  and  other  provinces,  where  it  is  abundant,  as 
indeed  at  whatever  place  the  superstition  prevails,  it  is 
deemed  a  crime  to  injure  it,  and  at  least  most  culpable 


THE  DEVIL'S  RIDING-HORSE   (MANTIDsE).          5 

neglect  not  to  remove  it  out  of  harm's  way,  should  it 
appear  exposed  to  the  slightest  possibility  of  danger.  If 
a  Hottentot  by  accident  kill  or  maim  the  local  species, 
he  is  believed  to  be  thereby  doomed  to  ill-luck  for  life, 
and  never  afterwards  can  shoot  buffalo  or  elephant. 

In  fact,  in  Africa,  both  among  the  Hottentots  and 
among  certain  tribes  to  the  north,  this  strange  feeling  of 
veneration  attains  its  highest  limits,  amounting,  as  some 
allege,  to  actual  worship.  In  the  case  of  the  former 
people,  should  one  of  these  insects  chance  to  alight  on 
an  individual,  he  immediately  becomes  a  saint  in  their 
eyes,  a  special  favourite  of  Heaven. 

Monkish  legends  go  the  length  of  making  the  mantis 
give  utterance  to  its  devout  sentiments  ;  a  specimen 
settling  on  the  hand  of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  he  desired  it 
to  sing  the  praises  of  God,  whereupon  it  carolled  forth 
a  very  beautiful  canticle.  "  So  divine  a  creature  is  this 
esteemed,"  says  Mouffet,  "  that  if  a  childe  aske  the  way 
to  such  a  place,  she  will  stretch  out  one  of  her  feet,  and 
show  him  the  right  way,  and  seldom  or  never  misse." 


Not  Saints,  but  Tigers. 

But  in  one  corner  of  the  world,  at  any  rate,  its  out- 
ward actions  seem  to  be  taken  for  what  they  are  worth, 
as  indicated  by  the  Brazilian,  somewhat  uncomplimentary 


6  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 

title  that  heads  this  chapter.  In  reality  a  more  atrocious 
little  savage  could  not  be  found — it  lives  by  raping ;  its 
tastes  are  essentially  carnivorous.  It  is  as  observant  and 
quick  as  a  monkey,  as  sly  and  stealthy  as  a  cat :  it  is  the 
tiger,  not  the  saint,  of  the  insect  world.  Its  so-called 
devotional  attitude  (see  Fig.  2)  is  simply  nothing  but  a 
lying  in  wait  for  what  the  gods  may  send  in  the  shape  of 
food.  Establishing  itself,  as  if  in  rapture,  upon  some  twig 
or  leaf,  it  will  remain  thus  absolutely  stationary,  prepared 
to  seize  any  unwary  insect  that  may  fall  within  convenient 
reach.  After  it  exhibits  a  wonderful  degree  of  patience, 
let  us  say  an  insect  happens  to  alight  within  a  short 
distance  of  it.  Instantly  it  catches  sight  of  the  new- 
comer, and  begins,  with  slow,  silent  tread,  to  steal 
towards  it.  So  imperceptible  the  motion,  it  can  only 
be  appreciated  by  steady  and  prolonged  watching.  At 
the  same  time  the  fore  legs,  which  up  till  now  had  been 
bent  back  upon  themselves,  commence  to  open.  Little 
by  little,  the  hunter  creeps  near  its  unconscious  prey, 
its  goggle  eyes  staring  upon  this  object  of  absorbing 
interest.  At  last  it  is  close  enough  to  strike  ;  and,  with 
celerity  of  movement  the  eye  cannot  follow,  a  formidable 
foreleg  is  shot  out  to  its  full  length,  and  brings  back 
the  victim,  hopelessly  secured  and  crushed  between  the  - 
shank  and  thigh,  and  scarcely  more  than  a  moment  is 
lost  ere  the  body  is  torn  to  pieces  and  devoured. 
Again  the  mantis  assumes  its  ecstatic  mood,  in  readiness, 


THE  DEVIL'S  RIDING-HORSE   (MANTIDJT).          7 

if  need  be,  for  the  insidious  progress  which  is  part  of 
its  crooked  policy.  No  insect,  however  agile,  can  escape 
those  merciless  paws,  the  rapidity  of  the  stroke,  just 
described,  of  which  is  in  marked  contrast  to  this  being's 
other  movements,  which  are  of  some  slowness. 

Although  ants  seem  exempt  from  approach,  mosquitos, 


FIG.  2.— Mantis  religiosa  in  devotional  attitude. 

flies,  and  small  bees  feed  the  insatiable  appetite  of  the 
mantidse,  they  destroy  caterpillars  and  large  grasshoppers 
in  great  numbers,  and  make  war  on  walking-sticks  and 
beetles ;  but  the  tougher  morsels  are  generally  dis- 
carded for  more  succulent  delicacies  ;  and  some  kinds  of 


8  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

insects,  the  Meloe's  in  particular,  are  evidently  extremely 
repulsive  to  them  on  account  of  their  secretion.  These 
carnivorous  habits  by  no  means  figure  alone  as  the 
sole  enormity  in  the  private  character  of  our  insects. 
They  are  of  a  most  quarrelsome  disposition,  and  can- 
nibalism trips  up  the  heels  of  their  pugnacity.  From 
their  very  birth  the  larvae  fight.  If  two  or  more  adults 
be  shut  up  together,  they  engage  in  a  desperate  conflict, 
cutting  at  each  other  with  their  sword-like  legs,  until 
one  of  the  belligerents  falls  in  the  fray,  when  the 
conqueror  swallows  up  his  antagonist ;  the  male,  being 
the  smaller,  often  constitutes  the  feast.  Their  manoeuvres 
while  joining  battle  have  been  likened  to  those  of 
hussars  with  sabres,  and  sometimes  one  cleaves  the 
head  of  the  other  from  the  body  with  a  single  slash. 

Aware  of  the  pugnacious  propensities,  the  Chinese 
indulge  their  talents  for  gambling  by  feeding  them  and 
keeping  them  apart  in  little  bamboo  cages,  and  matching 
them  like  fighting  cocks,  laying  wagers  on  the  results. 
The  mantidae  do  not  limit  their  voracity  to  insects  ;  they 
vanquish  creatures  which,  from  their  size  and  strength, 
one  would  have  thought  were  totally  free  from  their 
attacks.  Large  South  American  species  seize,  and  eat 
small  frogs,  lizards,  and  even  birds.  Surely  little  verte- 
brates, taken  by  surprise  and  feeling  themselves  pressed 
in  the  terrible  arms,  are  at  once  so  overcome  by  terror 
as  to  be  incapable  of  offering  resistance. 


THE  DEVIL'S  RIDING-HORSE   (MANTIDM). 


The  Organization  is  in  Conformity  with  a 
Carnivorous  Life. 

By  now,  doubtless,  the  fact  of  the  important  part 
played  by  the  fore  legs  in  the  carnivorous  habit  will  have 
presented  itself  forcibly  to  the  reader's  notice.  It  is  they 
that  serve  to  seize  living  prey,  and  the  form  these 
organs  have  taken  for  this  purpose  renders  them  the 
most  characteristic  feature  of  the  mantidse.  An  insect's 
leg,  it  may  be  stated,  is  composed  of  four  chief  parts — 
the  coxa,  femur,  tibia,  and  tarsus  ;  or  the  hip,  thigh, 
shank,  and  foot — and  its  typical  development  may  be 
seen  by  referring  to  Fig.  3,  B.  But  in  the  mantidae,  the 
front  pair  of  limbs  suffers  modification,  principally  in  the 
direction  of  increased  strength  and  size  (see  Fig.  3,  A). 
The  coxa  is  elongated,  and  becomes  slender  and  pris- 
matic, and  its  articulation,  remarkably  mobile,  is  such 
that  the  whole  limb  has  a  great  freedom  of  action,  and 
is  used,  much  as  an  arm  might  be  used,  in  conveying 
food  to  the  mouth.  The  third  joint  or  thigh  is  robust 
and  compressed,  and  bears  on  its  curved  under  side  a 
channel,  furnished  on  each  edge  with  strong,  movable 
spines ;  ordinarily  stronger,  fewer,  and  farther  apart  at 
the  external  edge  than  on  the  inner  border,  where  they 
are  numerous  and  crowded  :  this  armed  channel  extends 
only  along  the  terminal  half  of  the  femur,  and  towards 


10 


TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 


the  base  of  the  armature  there  is  one  or  several  long 
spines  in  the  centre  of  the  thigh.      Into  the  groove,  in 

repose,  the  tibia  fits,  it  being 
shorter  than  the  femur,  horny, 
and  compressed,  and  termin- 
ated by  a  long,  sharp,  curved 
claw.  Its  under  side  is  equally 
occupied  by  a  double  row  of 
fixed  spines  or  teeth.  This 
stout  piece,  bending  back  on 
the  femur,  forms  with  the 
latter  a  veritable  hand,  as  well 
as  a  powerful  vice ;  for  the 
two  rows  of  spines  of  the  tibia 
and  those  of  the  femur  oppose 
each  other,  and  work  into  each 
other,  the  former  chiefly  with  those  on  the  inner  border  of 
the  thigh ;  the  spines  on  the  external  border  of  the  thigh 
perform  the  duty  rather  of  a  kind  of  boundary,  to  prevent 
the  tibia  swerving  outwards.  It  is  clear,  that  in  the  act 
of  grasping  it  is  the  inner  border  that  is  best  armed  by 
far,  as  it  needs  be,  since,  naturally,  it  is  on  this  side  that 
the  insect  devours  its  prey.  The  slender  tarsus  does 
not  call  for  special  remark  ;  it  is  united  with  the  tibia  at 
the  base  of  the  claw,  and  can  be  completely  effaced  by 
applying  itself  in  a  wonderful  manner  against  the  inferior 
side  of  the  femur. 


B 


FIG.  3.—^.  Foreleg  of  Mantis  re- 
ligiosa ;  B.  Leg  of  a  Beetle  (Lu- 
canus  cervus}. 


THE  DEVIL'S  RIDING-HORSE   (MANTID&).        n 


In  repose,  be  it  observed,  the  three  principal  portions 
which  go  to  make  up  the  leg  are  all  folded  back  the  one 
upon  the  other,  and  obtain  concealment  beneath  the 
prothorax ;  the  coxae,  in  contact  with  each  other,  being 
enclosed  between  the  under  side  of  the  prothorax  and 
the  femora. 

The  front  legs  may  likewise  assist  their  owners  in 
walking,  as  the  existence  of 
normal  tarsi  betokens,  and  the 
sharp  claw  of  the  tibiae  may 
even  be  useful  in  climbing  the 
trunks  of  trees,  but  the  principal 
function  of  these  limbs  is  as  a 
powerful  weapon  for  the  capture 
of  prey. 

The  intermediate  and  pos- 
terior pairs  of  legs  are  without 
distinction  —  slender,  generally 
long,  and  fitted  only  for  walk- 
ing ;  normally  cylindrical,  they 
sometimes  are  provided  with 
membranous  lobes  of  variable 
form. 

FIG.     4.— A     stick-like     Mantis 
Next     tO     the     enlarged     front          (Leptocola  gracilima}  with  atro- 

legs,  with  their  adaptation  to  a       Phiedwinss- 

particular   end,    the   most   striking   lineament    of   these 

insects    is    the    long    prothorax,    it    being    the    longest 


12  TRUE   TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

segment  of  the  body  ;  among  slender  types  (see  Fig.  4)  the 
lengthening  may  become  marvellously  pronounced.  This 
piece  is,  in  fact,  elongated  into  a  narrow  neck,  rather  dilated 
in  front,  above  the  insertion  of  the  anterior  legs,  to  give 
added  strength  to  their  articulation  (see  Fig.  5),  leaving  a 
long,  flat,  narrow  space  on  the  under  side  behind  these 
legs  ;  the  remainder  of  the  thorax  is  short,  and  hid  by 
the  wings  and  wing-covers  in  the  position  of  rest. 

This  remarkable  development  shows  the  importance 
of  this  part  of  the  body,  the  movements  of  which  play  no 
mean  role  in  the  pursuit  of  prey.  Its  articulation  with 
the  meso-thorax  is  very  supple  ;  it  is  raised  obliquely,  it 
may  be  turned  to  either  side  with  the  greatest  liberty,  the 
body  meanwhile  being  supported  solely  by  the  two 
posterior  pairs  of  legs.  The  lengthening  of  the  pro- 
thorax,  we  may  believe,  has  been  promoted  by  the 
habitual  projection  in  front  of  the  rapacious  legs,  and  to 
their  presence  towards  the  end  of  the  long  elevated 
neck  is  in  part  due  the  mobility  of  its  mesothoracic 
articulation. 

Not  that  the  legs  and  thorax  are  the  only  parts 
arranged  with  reference  to  the  wants  of  the  insects. 
Their  whole  organization,  as  with  all  animals  that  give 
chase  to  living  prey,  is  superior,  and  is  in  direct  con- 
formity with  a  carnivorous  life,  which  demands  at 
the  same  time  perfected  senses,  and  great  vigour  and 
suppleness.  The  head,  instead  of  being  bound  in  the 


THE  DEVIL'S  RIDING-HORSE   (MANTID^E).        13 


prothorax,  enjoys  great  mobility,  and  may  be  turned  in 
every  way,  even  so  as  to  bring  the  mouth  obliquely 
upwards.  Its  customary  position  is  vertical,  or  bent  up 
against  the  prothorax,  the  mouth  applied  against  the 
neck.  It  is  triangular — sometimes  rounded  or  long — 
especially  with  the  great  bulged  eyes,  which  in  general 


occupy  the  su- 
to  enable  the 
in  many  direc- 
size  of  the 
no  less  than 
denotes  a  well- 
sense;  and 
ocelli,  are 
The  body, 
times  su  f  fi- 
set,  is  usually 
row. 


FIG.  5. — Head  and  prothorax 
of  Mantis  religiosa,  with 
insertion  of  anterior  legs. 


perior  angles, 
insects  to  see 
tions.  The 
visual  organs, 
their  position, 
developed 
simple  eyes,  or 
never  wanting, 
though  some- 
ciently  thick- 
long  and  nar- 
A  s  one 
among  hunt- 


would  expect 
ing  insects,  the  organs  of  flight  are  often  amply  de- 
veloped, and  powerful  enough  to  cover  considerable 
distances.  The  upper  pair,  or  elytra  as  they  are  called, 
are  as  long  as  the  abdomen,  or  sometimes  extend  in  both 
sexes  beyond  the  extremity  of  that  piece,  over  which 
they  are  carried  horizontally  when  closed,  one  greatly 
overlapping  the  other.  Compared  with  the  hinder  pair, 
they  are  at  least  as  long  as  they,  with  a  few  exceptions, 


14  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS, 

but  they  never  become  enormously  abbreviated,  and 
always  serve  as  sheaths  or  covers  to  the  wings.  They 
are  coriaceous  or  membranous,  those  of  the  males  con- 
stantly longer  and  narrower  than  in  the  females,  and 
always  more  transparent.  The  wings  are  large,  and, 
being  well  protected  in  rest,  remain  membranous,  though 
they  often  extend  a  little  beyond  the  elytra  ;  the  exposed 
tip  tends  to  become  indurated. 


Atrophy  of  the   Wings. 

There  exist  frequent  cases,  however,  where  the  organs 
are  atrophied  more  or  less,  especially  among  the  females. 
The  abbreviation  is  pushed  the  farthest  in  mantidae  of 
stick-like  form,  for  a  body  excessively  lank  and  long  almost 
precludes  the  power  of  flight,  and  condemns  the  species 
which  possess  it  to  a  pedestrian  life  (see  Fig.  4).  To  these 
insects  flight  would  be  possible  only  with  wings  of  great 
size,  and  the  narrowness  of  the  body  does  not  permit  the 
muscles  to  enlarge  sufficiently  to  move  such  organs  easily  ; 
whereas  the  bigger  mantidse  of  this  shape  have  wings 
always  more  or  less  undeveloped. 

But  the  females  seem  never  entirely  apterous ;  on 
the  thorax  always  persists  some  trace  of  the  organs  of 
flight.  Thus  among  certain  species  (Coptopteryx)  where 
the  elytra  alone  become  developed  to  a  rudimentary 


THE  DEVIL'S  RIDING-HORSE   (MANTID&).        15 

state,  even  in  these  rare  instances  the  wings  are  not 
altogether  obliterated,  but  are  invariably  indicated  under 
the  form  of  striate  lobes,  as  in  the  nymphs. 

In  addition  to  the  previously  mentioned  characters,  the 
males  have  longer  antennae  than  the  females,  they  have 
larger  eyes,  a  narrower  prothorax,  and  longer  and  more 
slender  raptorial  legs  ;  but  more  decided  sexual  differences 
occur. 


CHAPTER   II. 

THE    DEVIL'S    RIDING-HORSE 

— continued. 


FIG.  6. — Egg-capsules  of  Mantidse. 

Egg- lay  ing  and  the  Egg-capsules. 

IN  Europe  the  egg-laying  of  the  mantidse  occurs 
in  September.  Among  the  kinds  observed,  the  insect 
discharges  at  the  same  time  as  the  eggs,  a  mass  of  viscous 
or  gummy  matter,  which  she  affixes  to  the  stems  of 
bushes  or  on  stones,  and,  as  it  dries  in  the  air,  it  assumes 
the  form  of  a  fair-sized  spherical  or  oval  capsule  or  case, 


THE  DEVIL'S  RIDING-HORSE   (MANTIDM).         17 

and  surrounds  and  shelters  the  eggs.  The  whole  mass 
terminates  in  a  sort  of  neck  that  sticks  to  the  stem,  or  is 
directed  upwards,  lending  the  capsule  the  appearance  of 
a  seed  or  fruit,  for  which  indeed  it  has  been  frequently 
mistaken.  These  capsules,  or  oothecae,  as  they  are 
technically  called,  vary  with  the  species  (see  Fig.  6). 
Many  are  most  fragile,  some  of  much  beauty,  and 
their  internal  structure  is  of  marvellous  regularity ;  it 
is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that,  at  the  first  glance,  one 
might  easily  take  them  to  be  organized  bodies.  If 
generally  the  parent  dies  after  laying,  this  is  not  always 
the  case,  for  a  mantis  has  been  known  to  fashion 
successively  four  capsules,  and  even  to  establish  six 
different  ones,  at  intervals  of  seven  or  eight  days  ; 
but  in  Europe  the  parent  invariably  succumbs  before 
the  arrival  of  cold  weather.  Seeing,  then,  that  the 
young  brood  produced  in  autumn  remain  in  the  egg 
state  until  the  following  summer,  the  mantidse  dis- 
appear entirely  during  about  six  months,  for  there  is 
only  one  annual  laying.  But  in  warm  climates,  in  all 
probability,  the  life  of  these  insects  does  not  suffer  an 
interruption  equally  great,  and  already,  in  southern  parts 
of  Europe,  we  find  indication  of  the  fact  in  the  genus 
Empusa,  which  hibernate  in  the  state  of  larva,  and  trans- 
form in  the  subsequent  spring. 

An    examination    of    the     ellipsoid    capsule    of    the 
common  mantis,  Mantis  religiosa — by  the  way,  it  attains 

c 


18  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 

a  length  of  more  than  three  centimetres — is  well  worth 
making  (see  Fig.  7).  The  gummy  mass  voided  by  the 
insect  has  been  spread  out,  we  see,  into  a  succession 
of  layers,  fitting  lightly  by  their  curvature,  rounded  and 
equalized  on  the  surface  in  the  form  of  the  ovoid  cap, 
the  layers  being  of  insignificant  thickness.  A  transverse 
cutting  of  the  capsule  shows  that  each  layer  is  divided 
into  three  parts  ;  a  median  chamber  or  sac,  like  a  flat 
bottle,  open  at  the  top,  containing,  towards  the  bottom, 
the  eggs,  which  are  narrow,  longish,  yellow  in  colour,  and 
to  the  number  of  eight  to  ten,  resting  by  their  large  end, 
and  adhering  to  the  floor  of  the  mass  ;  and  all  ranged  on 
the  same  plan,  somewhat  fan-wise,  diverging  towards  the 
floor,  and  in  most  symmetrical  order,  one  half  on  either 
side,  with  or  without  a  central  egg ;  moreover,  each  is 
enveloped  in  a  gummy  pellicle.  The  two  walls  of  this 
flat  bottle  or  cell  which  contains  the  eggs  are  very  tough 
and  chitinous,  and  each  partition  narrows  above  the 
space  enclosing  the  eggs,  and  terminates  in  a  neck,  by 
an  arched  lamina  or  scale,  imbricating  with  the  lamina 
of  the  partition  above,  in  the  direction  of  the  small  end 
of  the  mass.  Together  these  laminae  constitute  a  scaly 
band  on  the  median  line  of  the  convex  upper  side  of  the 
capsule,  dividing  the  surface  into  two  symmetrical  parts. 
By  the  terminal  scale  of  each  partition  imbricating  with 
the  scale  of  the  partition  following,  the  cell  with  the  eggs 
placed  between  the  two  partitions  is  closed,  that  is  to 


THE   DEVIL'S  RIDING-HORSE   (MANTID^E).        19 

say,  a  sort  of  elastic  operculum  is  formed,  which,  after 
hatching,  the  larvae  have  to  raise  in  effecting  their  egress 
through  the  neck. 

Laterally  to  the  important  compartment  with  the 
eggs,  on  either  side  are  envelopes,  formed  of  a  foamy 
substance,  chitin- 
ous,  but  very 
light,  made  up 
also  of  arched  WftW  V 

••sft^f^^^^^  ;    - 

cells,  and  dis- 
posed by  succes- 
sive layers,  COrre-  FlG"  7- -Egg-capsule  of  Mantis  religiosa. 

spending  to  the  succession  of  the  central  chambers. 
To  these  they  must  be  regarded  as  mere  protective 
casings,  since  they  contain  no  eggs. 

It  is  also  in  the  light  of  protection  that  one  must 
look  upon  the  layers  of  the  two  extremities  of  the 
capsule.  They  do  not  contain  eggs,  and  consequently 
present  no  horny  central  cell,  but  are  composed  solely 
of  cellular  tissue,  analogous  to  that  of  the  two  lateral 
zones  of  the  other  layers ;  they  simply  afford  additional 
strength  to  the  ends  of  the  structure.  The  highest  and 
lowest  cells  that  envelop  eggs  are  smaller  than  the  rest, 
and  possess  only  two,  four,  or  six  of  these  little  objects, 
for  whose  well-being  alone  they  were  established. 

The  capsule  is  at  first  soft  and  whitish,  but  soon 
darkens,  and  becomes  firm,  parchment-like,  or  very 


20  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 

resistant,  and  tears  only  with  difficulty,  and  is  imper- 
meable to  water.  It  may  be  plunged  into  liquid  without 
the  eggs  being  injured,  so  admirable  the  closure  of  the 
opercular  scales  one  upon  the  other. 

It  is  not  easy  to  understand  how  the  mantis,  simply 
by  the  act  of  laying,  contrives  to  form  a  structure  so 
wonderfully  regular,  and  so  complicated  as  this  capsule ; 
it  would  be  a  clever  bit  of  work  were  it  built  by  the 
mouth  and  feet,  but  fashioned  as  it  is,  it  appears  a  con- 
juror's trick.  The  insect  begins  to  establish  the  edifice 
at  the  large  end ;  and  whilst  the  viscous  matter  flows, 
the  abdomen  is  caused  to  assume  a  circular,  undulatory 
motion,  ceaselessly  working  up  the  gummy  mass,  and 
arranging  it  in  the  successive  concave  layers.  It 
must  be  supposed  that  for  each  layer  she  at  first  dis- 
charges the  eggs  clothed,  as  it  were,  in  gummy  stuff, 
which  in  drying  hardens,  and  becomes  the  central 
horny  sac,  and  then  to  right  and  left  she  deposits  a 
viscid  fluid  less  strong,  known  to  us  eventually  in  its 
solidified  state  in  the  shape  of  the  lateral  foamy  cells. 

Curiously  enough,  the  eggs  at  the  small  end  of  the 
ootheca  hatch  first,  although  these  were  the  last  deposited. 

The  European  Ameles,  small  mantidse  which  likewise 
inhabit  the  Mediterranean  basin,  have  prismatic  capsules, 
about  two  centimetres  long,  composed  of  a  most  neat 
series  of  triangular  cells,  each  enclosing  six  or  seven 
eggs,  almost  destitute  of  lateral  cellular  tissue. 


THE  DEVIL'S  RIDING-HORSE   (MANTID&).        21 

In  spite  of  all  the  mother's  care,  chalcidideous  parasites 
infest  her  eggs  to  some  extent.  Several  species  have 
been  obtained  from  the  eggs  of  mantidae  of  Mauritius 
and  Brazil,  and  those  of  Mantis  religiosa,  in  Cephalonia, 
are  known  to  be  attacked.  It  is  probable  that  the 
parasite  seizes  her  opportunity  to  start  the  career  of 
her  progeny  before  the  glutinous  covering  has  acquired 
its  final  consistency. 


Development  of  the    Young. 

Step  by  step,  we  may  study  the  development  of 
Mantis  religiosa — which  may  be  taken  as  the  type  of 
the  mantidse — and  see  these  eggs,  on  the  whole  securely 
housed,  change  to  larva,  to  pupa,  and  at  last  to  imago. 
To  the  lot  of  the  mature  insect  short  life  falls  ;  in  turn 
it  propagates  its  kind,  and  that  done,  in  submission  to 
the  winter's  cold,  it  dies.  The  eggs  do  not  hatch  till 
June,  and  only  after  a  lapse  of  nearly  three  months  the 
mantis  arrives  at  the  perfect  state. 

The  young,  in  quitting  the  egg,  leaves  the  shell  at  the 
bottom  of  the  cell.  It  already  presents,  in  a  general 
way,  the  aspect  of  the  adult.  Too  feeble  to  use  its  legs, 
it  employs  a  special  artifice  in  escaping  from  the  cell 
where  it  is  confined.  On  the  chitinous  covering  of  the 
body  spines  are  developed,  directed  backwards,  and  these 


22  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE   INSECTS. 

acting  as  a  prop  against  the  walls  of  the  cell,  the  larva, 
by  giving  an  undulatory  movement  to  the  abdomen,  is 
enabled  to  make  its  way  towards  the  operculum  with 
ease.  There,  with  its  back,  it  raises  the  opercular  scale 
which  closes  it  in,  and  gains  its  liberty  to  the  outer  world 
in  the  most  natural  manner. 

No  sooner  is  the  flap  pushed  the  least  bit  ajar  than  it 
shuts  to  by  its  own  elasticity.  It  acts,  indeed,  like  the 
spring  lid  of  a  box,  so  that  the  posterior  legs  and  the 
long  anal  threads  of  the  larva  may  be  caught  as  in  a 
vice ;  and  should  the  spring  be  too  strong,  and  the  larva 
be  unable  to  profit  by  the  assistance  in  drawing  itself 
from  its  skin,  it  perishes,  for  want  of  power  to  extricate 
itself.  In  its  other  sheddings  the  insect  is  no  less  obliged, 
in  order  to  get  rid  of  the  useless  tight  case,  to  fix  to 
some  object,  in  default  of  which  it  has  no  option  but  to 
work  itself  out  of  what  has  become  its  prison,  by  tearing 
its  coat  with  its  claws. 

A  single  capsule  gives  birth  to  from  fifty  to  a  hundred 
larvae. 

These  creatures,  in  form  almost  the  very  image  of 
their  parents,  are  in  the  beginning  excessively  delicate, 
soft,  and  pale,  and  upon  issuing  from  their  cradle  they 
disperse,  but  do  not  venture  far  from  its  immediate 
vicinity.  No  long  time  is  spent  ere  they  betake  them- 
selves to  hiding,  among  leaves  and  under  stones,  there 
to  undergo  their  first  moult.  As  yet  they  have  not 


THE  DEVIL'S  RIDING-HORSE   (MANTIDM).        23 

partaken  of  food,  nevertheless  they  already  exhibit  the 
suppleness  of  the  adults,  and  the  same  poses,  turning 
their  head  backwards,  and  holding  the  anterior  legs  folded 
up  upon  themselves,  as  in  the  actual  preparatory  attitude 
of  attack.  In  spite  of  this  bearing,  they  are  singularly 
timid,  and  dart  under  stones  at  the  approach  of  an 
insect.  Their  anterior  legs  still  serve  merely  for  climb- 
ing ;  they  constantly,  in  fact,  creep  to  the  extremities  of 
twigs,  where  they  appear  to  repair  in  search  of  prey. 
During  their  early  days  their  pains  seem  all  for  nought, 
for  the  sight  of  plant-lice,  for  which  they  are  on  the  look- 
out, causes  them  the  greatest  perturbation,  and  it  is  only 
with  extreme  circumspection,  and  by  taking  as  many 
precautionary  measures  as  prudence  can  dictate,  that  the 
larvae  dare  to  draw  near,  and,  little  by  little,  acquire  the 
trick  of  seizing  them.  The  young  mantidae  now  commence 
to  have  the  capability  of  partaking  of  a  fairly  varied 
insect  diet.  At  the  end  of  twelve  or  fifteen  days  they 
experience  a  second  moult — a  fatal  crisis  for  many,  for 
those  which  cannot  manage  to  cast  off  the  now  too  small 
envelope,  die  in  the  endeavour.  By  this  time  the  mantis 
has  advanced  in  its  killing  powers,  to  be  able  to  master 
insects  as  large,  for  instance,  as  the  Ephemerae.  About 
a  fortnight  or  three  weeks  later,  it  must  again  strip  off 
its  skin.  In  all,  there  are  at  least  seven  moults,  but  it  is 
impossible  so  speak  on  this  point  with  absolute  certainty, 
owing  to  the  difficulty  of  rearing  these  larvae  in  captivity. 


24  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 

After  each  moult  the  mantis  is  languid  and  sickly,  and 
unequal  to  the  chase,  and  relapses  into  the  timorous  state 
of  the  period  of  extreme  youth,  so  that  but  a  glimpse  of 
an  insect  near  by  suffices  to  throw  it  into  a  condition  of 
violent  agitation  and  terror  ;  but  soon  the  pangs  of  a 
voracious  appetite  cast  fear  and  timidity  to  the  winds, 
and  it  freely  attacks  and  subdues  to  its  needs  other  larvae 
and  insects.  By-and-by  its  agility  becomes  such,  that  it 
not  only  climbs  on  tree-trunks  with  remarkable  ease  in 
pursuit  of  prey,  and  passes  from  branch  to  branch  with 
the  utmost  facility,  but  it  takes  on  the  movements  of  the 
monkey  which  we  meet  with  among  adults,  letting  itself 
fall  from  one  branch  to  another,  hanging  suspended,  and 
recovering  itself  by  aid  of  the  long,  sharp  tibial  claw. 

The  organs  of  flight  appear  under  the  form  of  simple 
prolongations  of  the  teguments  of  the  lateral  borders  of 
the  segments  of  the  meso-  and  metathorax  ;  and  in  these 
stumps  can  be  distinguished  some  of  the  principal  parts, 
and  they  hold  the  normal  position.  The  last  moult 
suddenly  develops  the  elytra  and  wings  in  all  their 
extent,  an  enormous  and  truly  astonishing  development, 
one  still  unexplained,  when  we  compare  the  voluminous 
organs  with  the  little  sheaths  in  which  they  were  con- 
tained among  the  nymphs. 

It  is  the  nymphs  that  approach  the  sub-apterous  adult 
mantidse,  as  among  Coptopteryx  females,  in  which  the 
wings,  although  not  separated  from  the  metathorax, 


THE   DEVIL'S  RIDING-HORSE   (MANTID&).        25 

exist  in  the  state  of  stumps,  under  the  form  they  assume 
during  the  nymph  period.  But  whilst  among  mantidse, 
in  the  case  of  the  non-separation  of  the  organs  of  flight, 
it  is  always  the  nymph  state  that  persists,  among 
Phasmidae,  on  the  contrary,  the  larva  state  is  that  which  is 
preserved  most  often  :  in  the  last-mentioned  Orthoptera, 
when  the  wings  are  wanting,  they  are  entirely  obliterated. 
The  development  of  the  mantidae,  then,  is  arrested  at  a 
later  stage,  a  fact  indicating  a  more  advanced  step  in 
transformation,  and  a  nature  more  perfect. 

Protective  and  Aggressive  Resemblance. 

A  most  interesting  feature  of  the  mantidae  is  their 
presentment,  in  a  high  degree,  of  a  phenomenon  which 
indeed  the  whole  order  Orthoptera  presents — that  of 
adaptation  to  their  conditions  of  life.  In  a  more  or  less 
wonderful  manner,  their  appearance  harmonizes  with 
their  surroundings,  with  the  soil  or  vegetation  on  which 
they  live,  tending  to  their  concealment,  and  so  escape 
from  enemies,  when  the  resemblance  is  protective  ;  and 
the  same  circumstance  is  of  special  value  in  enabling 
them  to  lie  in  wait  for,  and  to  creep  upon  their  prey,  in 
which  cases  the  resemblance  is  aggressive.  This  one 
character — that  of  adaptation  leading  to  concealment, 
then — is  of  use  to  its  possessors  for  two  different  ends, 
for  defence  and  for  attack. 


26 


TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 


Mantidse  invariably  imitate  the  colour  of  the  spots 
which  they  inhabit,  and  as  the  greater  number  of  species 
live  on  plants  and  shrubs,  they  have  a  green  colour. 
Green  is  almost  the  normal  case  among  mantidse.  An 
exception  to  the  green  kinds  that  habitually  repose  upon 
vegetation  is  comprised  by  those  which,  imitating  dead 
leaves,  take  a  brown  colour. 

But  there  is  another  exception  to  this  rule  of  colour 
among  the  plant-types.  Sometimes  Mantis  religiosa  is 
grey.  This  deviation  may  be  probably  regarded  as  due 
merely  to  the  influence  of  the  sun  in  arid  places,  where 
vegetation  is  itself  parched  and  scanty  ;  but  it  appears  to 
become  hereditary  in  the  spots  where  it  is  oftenest  pro- 
duced, and  where  foliage  is  well-nigh  wanting.  In  sandy 


FIG.  8. — A  ground  Mantis  (Ercmiaphila  typhori),  from  Egypt. 

and  rocky  desert  districts  it  occurs,  and  thus  a  race  is 
developed  which,  in  assimilating  itself  with  the  general 
artistic  effects  or  colour  of  its  environment,  passes 


THE  DEVIL'S  RIDING-HORSE   (MANT/D/E).        27 

unobserved,  without  attracting  the  fatal  attention  of 
enemies.  Not  only  this,  but  in  such  districts  the  indi- 
viduals of  the  green  colour,  being  most  conspicuous,  will 


FIG.  9. — Chceradodis  rhombicollis,  with  prothoracic  expansion  and  leaf-like  elytra. 

be  readily  devoured  ;  and  generation  after  generation  the 
grey  form  will  tend  to  repeat  itself,  to  the  gradual  exclu- 
sion of  the  other  ;  so  also  the  grey  form  will  disappear 
in  verdant  regions,  where  the  green  specimens  will  be 


28  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE   INSECTS. 

better  protected,  and  will  propagate  their  kind.  In  this 
way,  certain  species  tend  to  divide  into  two  varieties,  the 
one  of  a  green  colour  appertaining  to  vegetation,  the 
other  grey,  living  amid  sands  and  rocks. 

There  are  species  which  live  exclusively  on  sterile 
rocks  and  plains,  where  the  alteration  of  colour  ,  has 
become  an  accomplished  fact ;  they  have  always  a  grey 
or  yellow  tint,  in  conformity  with  that  of  the  soil  on 
which  they  reside.  Those  insects  which  assume  colours 
other  than  green  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  younger  form, 
replacing  an  older  type.  They  belong  almost  entirely  to 
the  Old  World  ;  the  species  of  the  New  World  appertain 
essentially  to  the  class  of  green  mantidae. 


Those  Curious  Creatures  tke  Eremiaphilce. 

As  an  example  of  the  ground-types,  take  those  curious 
creatures  (Eremiaphila,  see  Fig.  8)  first  discovered  by 
Savigny  at  the  time  of  the  1798  expedition  to  Egypt. 
Not  by  their  colour  alone,  but  by  the  rugosity  of  their 
body,  these  insects  imitate  the  earth.  They  are  essen- 
tially dwellers  in  deserts ;  they  inhabit  deserts  deprived 
of  all  vegetation,  and  enjoy  power  of  adaptation  to  their 
surroundings  such  that  they  always  offer  the  most  perfect 
identity  with  the  shade  of  the  sands  and  pebbles  on  which 
they  move,  giving  rise  to  local  varieties.  Lefebvre,  who 


THE  DEVIL'S  RIDING-HORSE   (MANTIDM).        29 

described  them  much  later  than  Savigny,  mentions  that 
he  was  unable  to  discover  any  insect  capable  of  nourishing 
these  carnivora,  and  they  disappeared  at  the  borders  of 
oases,  as  soon  as  vegetation  commenced  ;  they  were  con- 
fined to  the  absolutely  arid  sands  where  they  were  met. 
However,  species  have  since  been  found  in  spots  that 
support  a  few  sorry  plants.  The  genus  Eremiaphila 
seems  localized  in  the  Mediterranean  regions  of  Africa 
and  Asia,  appearing  in  Egypt,  the  desert  of  Luxor,  the 
oasis,  isthmus  of  Suez,  in  Abyssinia,  Nubia,  Algeria, 
and  Arabia. 

As  to  the  general  modifications  of  form,  one  may  say 
of  the  ground  mantidae,  and  among  the  Eremiaphilae  in 
particular,  the  body  tends  to  become  clumsy  and  squat, 
with  the  anterior  legs  short  and  large,  and  the  organs  of 
flight  atrophied.  The  plant-types,  on. the  contrary,  tend 
to  lengthen  :  those  with  a  slender  neck  and  large 
abdomen  live  on  leaves ;  the  stick- like  body  of  others 
renders  them  in  keeping  with  nothing  so  much  as  with 
slender  herbaceous  or  woody  stems  ;  their  wings  tend  to 
abbreviate,  and  even  become  unfit  for  purposes  of  flight 
in  the  case  of  the  larger  species  of  this  form,  as  Thespis  ; 
small  kinds  of  the  type  have  wings  well  developed. 


30  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 

Beautiful  Examples  of  Special  Resemblance. 

It  is  the  tropical  plant-types  that  present  in  a  wonder- 
fully perfect  degree  the  phenomenon  of  Protective  and 
Aggressive  resemblance,  not  by  colour  merely,  repro- 
ducing the  general  effect  of  the  surroundings ;  the 
resemblance  may  be  strikingly  special,  in  which  the 
appearance  of  some  particular  vegetative  object  is  more 
or  less  exactly  copied  in  colour,  and  also  in  outline  and 
shape.  Certain  mantidse  have  the  veining  of  their  wings 
modified  so  as  precisely  to  imitate  that  of  a  leaf.  The 
body  in  mantidae,  no  less  than  that  in  walking-sticks,  is 
subject  to  carry  appendages,  giving  rise  to  most  bizarre 
forms,  which  imitate  parts  of  plants.  But  the  resem- 
blance is  not  produced  by  the  same  contrivances  as 
among  Phasmidae.  Here  it  is  in  general  the  prothorax 
that  dilates  in  the  form  of  a  leaf  (Cheer adodis,  Epaphro- 
ditd]  ;  or  the  elytra  have  a  cut-out  outline  (Deroplatys), 
or  expand  beyond  measure  (Stagmatoptera,  Cardioptera\ 
producing  a  marvellous  resemblance  to  great  leaves  with 
their  nervures.  It  is  hardly  possible  to  conceive  vege- 
table appearances  more  grotesque  than  those  brought 
about  by  the  development  of  a  number  of  foliaceous 
lobes  with  which  the  legs,  the  body,  and  head  are 
adorned  (Gongylus)  ;  or  when  the  insects  even  associate 
certain  postures  with  their  appendages,  so  as  to  resemble 
follicular  fruits,  or  packets  of  leaflets  {Acanthops). 


THE  DEVIL'S  RIDING-HORSE   (MANTID&}.        31 

But  as  compared  with  those  of  the  walking-sticks,  all 
these  adventitious  lobes  are  less  indented ;  they  are 
plainer  and  more  defined,  and  the  body  is  never  covered 
with  spines,  properly  so  called. 

At  a  glance  one  may  recognize  the  genus  Chseradodis, 
by  the  great  membrane  which  extends  from  each  side, 
and  occupies  the  length  of  the  long  prothorax  (see 
Fig.  9).  These  insects  are  present  not  only  in  tropical 
America,  as  in  Costa  Rica,  Guayaquil,  New  Granada, 
Ecuador,  and  Brazil,  but  in  India,  including  Ceylon  ; 
and  the  flattened  shape  of  Chceradodis  rhombicollis,  its 
colour  a  delicate  green,  in  part  of  a  pale  red  almost 
yellow,  the  large  flat,  rhomboidal  prothoracic  dilation, 
with  the  lateral  angles  rounded,  the  long  narrow 
opaque  green  leaf-life  elytra,  the  transparent  wings, 
the  somewhat  denticulate  anterior  legs, — these  features 
all  combine  to  make  an  insect  as  odd  as  it  is  interesting. 

The  genus  Deroplatys,  which  is  apparently  exclusively 
Asiatic,  replacing  in  the  ancient  world  the  genus  Acan- 
thops,  is  divided  into  two  kinds,  in  virtue  of  its  strange 
leaf-like  prothoracic  appendage.  It  may  be  large  towards 
the  front  and  small  behind,  in  which  case  the  form  is 
often  quite  grotesque ;  or  the  reverse,  it  attains  the 
greatest  size  at  the  posterior  end,  and  is  more  or  less 
triangular,  but  the  shape  often  differs  in  the  two  sexes. 
Deroplatys  truncata  (see  Fig.  10),  a  species  that  must 
be  relegated  to  the  latter  class,  is  to  be  met  with  in 


TRUE    TALES    OF  THE   INSECTS. 


Singapore,  at  the  extremity  of  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
in  Borneo,  and  Java  ;  dessicata  belonging  to  the  first 

class,  in  Ma- 
lacca and 
Java;  ancl 
Sumatra  is 
another  island 
that  gives 
birth  to  these 
m  a  n  t  i  d  ae . 
Their  colour 
dried  is  a 
greenish  yel- 
lowand  brown 
feuillemort. 
Among  the 
females  espe- 
cial ly,  the 
elytra  have  a 

FIG.  10. — Deroplatys  truncata> .from  Borneo.  •    11       r 

being  sometimes  large,  truncated,  and  rounded,  some- 
times longer  and  pointed,  the  edges,  as  we  have 
seen,  often  irregular,  while  the  wings,  coloured  and  fre- 
quently ornamented  with  beautiful  spots  and  arched 
bands,  may  suddenly  narrow  into  a  kind  of  little  tail, 
reaching  beyond  the  elytra  in  repose,  as  in  truncata. 
The  thighs  of  the  second  and  third  pair  of  legs  carry  at 


TffE  DEVIL'S  RIDING  HORSE   (MANTIDM}.         33 


FIG.  ii. — Gongylus  trachelophyllus,  with  numerous  foliaceous  lobes. 


THE  DEVIL'S  RIDING-HORSE   (MANTID^E).        35 

their  extremity  foliaceous  dilatations,  and  the  abdomen 
is  dilated  and  possessed  of  small  projections.  These 
insects,  in  the  form  and  structure  of  the  elytra,  by 
the  lobes  on  the  sides  of  the  abdomen,  and  their  colour 
like  a  faded  leaf,  and  in  other  ways,  approach  near  to 
the  Acanthops. 

In  the  genus  Gongylus  the  prothorax  is  wonderfully 
elongated,  as  it  were  into  a  slender  stem,  but  dilated  in 
leaf  form  above  the  anterior  legs  ;  the  head  terminates 
in  a  double  leaflet ;  the  elytra  widen  abruptly  at  the 
base — they  are  longer  and  demi-membranous  among  the 
males,  opaque  among  the  females ;  the  thighs  of  the  two 
posterior  pairs  of  legs  carry  at  their  extremity  three 
rounded  lobes ;  and  the  abdomen  is  expanded  (see 
Fig.  u). 


Alluring  Colouration  and  Aggressive  Mimicry. 

The  Special  Aggressive  Resemblance  of  mantidse 
assumes  yet  another  phase — the  disguise  is  used  for  more 
than  concealment,  and  does  more  than  hide  the  insect  from 
its  prey ;  it  may  even  serve  as  a  direct  means  of  securing 
the  latter,  attracting  them  by  simulating  some  object 
which  is  to  them  of  particular  value.  Such  appearances, 
which  observation  has  failed  to  discover  in  many  cases 
besides  the  Mantidae  in  the  realm  of  insects,  Dr.  Wallace 


36  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 

calls  Alluring  Colouration,  and  they  constitute  some  of 
the  most  curious  and  interesting  forms  of  aggressive 
resemblance. 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  and  remarkable  examples  is 
that  of  a  wingless  Indian  mantis  (Hymenopus  bicornis\ 
of  great  rarity,  which,  both  in  colour  and  form,  resembles 
an  orchid,  or  some  similarly  fantastic  flower.  The  whole 
insect  is  brilliantly  pink.  Its  large  and  oval  abdomen 
represents  the  labellum  of  an  orchid,  and  the  thighs  of 
the  four  posterior  legs  are  immensely  dilated  and  flattened 
into  broad,  pear-shaped  plates,  the  apparent  petals  of  a 
blossom  ;  so  that  when  seated  motionless,  as  is  its  wont, 
amid  bright  green  foliage,  with  thorax  and  abdomen 
raised  at  right  angles  to  one  another,  with  the  forelegs 
drawn  out  of  sight  under  the  thorax,  and  the  four  ex- 
panded thighs  of  the  other  legs  spread  out  two  on  each 
side,  it  is  conspicuous,  of  course,  but  presents  a  complete 
and  deceptive  imitation  of  a  gay-hued  flower.  Here 
colour,  form,  and  attitude  all  conspire,  in  an  inimitable 
manner,  to  produce  the  resemblance.  Of  the  meaning 
of  the  resemblance  there  can  be  no  doubt.  Insects  seem 
attracted  to  the  mantis,  as  insects  to  flowers ;  they  settle 
upon  it,  and  are  instantly  captured. 

A  very  similar  species,  which,  when  at  rest,  lying  in 
wait  for  its  prey,  exactly  resembles  a  pink  orchid,  inhabits 
Java.  This  mantis  is  said  to  feed  especially  on  butter- 
flies, so  that  by  its  imitation  of  a  flower,  the  insect  it  feeds 


THE   DEVIL'S  RIDING-HORSE   (MANTIDAE).        37 

on  will  actually  be  attracted  towards  it ;  in  fact,   "  it  is 
really  a  living  trap,  and  forms  its  own  bait." 

Equally  interesting  instances  of  the  striking  simulation 
to  flowers  are  exhibited  by  Indian  Mantidae  of  the  genus 
Gongylus,  the  floral  resemblance,  by  deceiving  and 
attracting  insects,  serving  to  secure  for  the  pupal  mantidae 
a  supply  of  food.  With  regard  to  their  under  surface, 
the  leaf-like  prothoracic  expansion  is  coloured  either 
white,  or  a  pale  bluish-violet,  inclining  to  mauve,  and 
acquiring  a  reddish  tinge  towards  the  margins,  so  as 
to  resemble  a  flower  with  a  white  or  a  purple  corolla, 
and  both  species  have  the  same  blackish-brown  blotch 
in  the  centre,  thus  resembling  the  opening  of  a  tube  in 
the  middle  of  the  corolla  of  a  flower.  A  specimen  having 
a  bright  violet-blue  thoracic  shield  was  found  in  Pegu, 
by  the  late  Mr.  S.  Kurz,  and  its  resemblance  to  a 
flower  for  a  moment  deceived  the  practised  eyes  of  the 
botanist. 

The  resemblance  of  mantidae  to  the  excreta  of  birds 
is  also  of  use  to  the  insects  for  aggressive  purposes, 
since  flies  are  known  to  be  attracted  by  such  droppings. 
One  mantis  closely  resembles  the  white  ants  on  which 
it  feeds — an  instance  of  the  somewhat  rare  phenomenon 
of  Aggressive  Mimicry. 


38  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 


Geographical  Distribution. 

The  mantidae  appertain  essentially  to  the  warm 
countries  of  the  world,  being  especially  abundant  in 
the  tropics,  and  becoming  fewer  towards  high  latitudes  ; 
they  do  not  go  beyond  the  temperate  regions,  and 
never  penetrate  to  the  cold  parts  ;  to  speak  more 
precisely,  as  a  whole  they  hardly  pass  the  46°  of  latitude 
in  the  southern  hemisphere,  the  48°  to  the  north,  so 
that  they  do  not  occur  in  England.  In  North  America 
they  seem  to  stop  in  Pennsylvania,  and  there  are  few 
species  in  the  Southern  States  ;  in  South  America  they 
reach  the  confines  of  Patagonia.  In  Europe,  so  far  as 
the  central  portion  is  concerned,  while  they  are  usually 
arrested  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Alps,  this  is  not 
invariably  the  case,  for  during  the  last  century  Mantis 
religiosa  was  common  to  the  environs  of  Ratisbon, 
though  to-day  it  might  be  looked  for  there  in  vain. 
Several  species  are  met  with  in  the  south  of  France, 
and  the  mildness  of  climate  in  Western  Europe 
permits  of  the  insects  spreading  along  the  coast-line  to 
Normandy. 

Being  neither  travellers  nor  vagrants,  seas,  generally 
speaking,  seem  to  offer  an  insuperable  barrier  to  their 
advance,  and  the  different  forms  that  serve  as  types 
may  be  said  to  remain  attached  to  the  regions  where 


THE  DEVIL'S  RIDING-HORSE  (MANTIDM).        39 

they  are  developed  ;  the  geographical  distribution  of 
these  insects,  in  fact,  is  distinguished  for  this  trait — the 
tendency  towards  localization  of  the  genera  to  the 
different  continents.  In  this  way  the  distribution  is  very 
clearly  defined.  Thus,  in  America  the  genera  belong 
for  the  most  part  exclusively  to  the  New  World,  and 
differ  from  those  of  the  Old  World  ;  and  in  the  latter, 
by  the  side  of  widespread  genera,  others  are  peculiar 
to  Africa,  or  to  Asia,  or  to  Australia,  and  to  the 
Isles  of  the  Pacific.  Of  the  genera  represented  in  the 
two  hemispheres,  their  number  is  sufficiently  restricted 
that  it  may  be  said  they  are  exceptions  to  the  common 
rule.  There  are  the  genera  Ameles  and  Iris,  found 
both  in  America  and  in  the  Mediterranean  regions ; 
Liturgousa  and  Cardioptera  appear  in  America  and  in 
Southern  Africa  ;  Miopteryx  in  America  and  Asia;  and 
lastly,  the  American  Thespis  crop  up  in  Africa  and 
in  Asia  in  the  shape  of  Oxythespis.  It  will  be  remarked 
that  while  Ameles  and  Iris  are  of  the  Old  World  types, 
which  may  have  passed  to  America,  Liturgousa,  Car- 
dioptera, and  Thespis  have  a  real  American  stamp, 
and  seem  rather  to  have  emigrated  from  America  to 
Africa,  at  an  epoch  more  or  less  remote. 

Distinctly,  America  appears  to  possess  fewer  genera 
and  species  than  the  Oriental  hemisphere,  and  it  is  in 
Asia,  particularly  in  the  Moluccas  and  the  Isles  of  Sunda, 
that  the  family  seems  to  be  most  richly  represented. 


40  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 

Mantis  religiosa,  which  has  been  often  mentioned,  a 
sufficiently  pretty,  though  not  striking  mantis,  is  full 
of  interest  to  us,  as  being  the  species  best  known  near 
home,  across  the  Channel,  to  our  neighbours  in  France. 
In  all  the  south  of  that  country  it  is  common,  but  is 
rarer  in  the  north,  reaching  Saintes,  La  Rochelle,  Dijon, 
and  the  coast  of  Normandy  as  far  as  Havre ;  and  it 
has  been  taken  occasionally  near  Paris,  at  Fontainebleau, 
etc.  It  occurs  in  Spain,  Italy,  and  Sicily,  frequently  in 
the  fields  and  gardens  of  Tuscany.  Passing  through 
South  and  Mid  Germany,  Southern  and  Eastern  Russia, 
and  South  Siberia,  it  penetrates  to  the  Orient  shores 
of  Asia,  at  Ning-po,  China.  It  is  likewise  abundant 
in  Algeria,  and  is  found  all  along  the  northern  coast 
of  Africa. 


CHAPTER    III. 

WALKING-STICKS    AND    WALKING-LEAVES 

General  Peculiarities. 

THESE  insects,  constituting  the  family  Phasmidse,  are 
amongst  the  most  curious  of  natural  objects.  They  are 
most  extraordinary  in  appearance ;  even  more  gro- 
tesque than  the  Mantidse.  Frequently  they  are  of  great 
size,  some  attaining  nine  inches,  and  a  foot  in  length  ; 
their  variety  of  form  is  almost  infinite.  Their  names, 
both  popular  and  systematic,  arise  from  their  singular 
resemblance  to  vegetable  structures  ;  some,  long  and 
cylindrical,  look  exactly  like  sticks  or  stems  of  grass  ; 
some  might  be  mistaken  for  moss-grown  twigs  ;  some 
for  lichen-covered  bark  ;  while  others  are  invested  with 
spines,  like  thorns.  The  imitative  resemblance  of  those 
known  as  the  Phylliides  to  leaves  is  marvellous.  It 
will  be  well  first  to  take  a  rapid  survey  of  the  more 
prominent  features  of  their  remarkable  body. 

Contrary  to  what  exists  among  the  Mantidae  and  other 
carnivorous  Orthoptera,  the  head  is  ovoid,  thick,  and  has 


42  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

a  horizontal  direction,  or  depressed  towards  the  base,  the 
mouth  always  directed  somewhat  forward  ;  with  the  eyes 
more  or  less  prominent,  but  ocelli  in  the  majority  of 
species  wanting.  While  the  prothorax  is  always  small, 
shorter  than  the  head,  undergoing,  strange  to  say,  but 
little  elongation  even  in  species  most  linear  and  elongate 
in  form,  the  mesothorax  often  assumes  an  extraordinary 
length.  It  may  be  six  times  as  long  as  the  prothorax, 
and  generally  likewise  exceeds  the  length  of  the  meta- 
thorax.  This  extension  relatively  to  the  other  two 
thoracic  segments  is  peculiar,  since  in  other  groups 
where  it  occurs  there  are  powerful  mesothoracic  wings, 
whereas  the  Phasmidae  are  noted  for  the  absence  or 
curtailment  of  these  particular  appendages.  When 
present,  this  segment  carries  them  and  the  second 
pair  of  legs  only  at  its  posterior  extremity,  and  in  like 
fashion  the  third  pair  of  legs  is  attached  to  the  meta- 
thorax.  Except  in  the  case  of  the  Phylliides,  the  hind 
body,  or  abdomen,  is  also  elongated.  Entirely  ambu- 
latory, the  legs  vary  much  in  the  details  of  their  shape. 
Ordinarily  the  anterior  pair  is  the  longest,  and  the 
femora  often  have  the  basal  part  compressed  ;  and  they 
are  so  formed  as  to  stretch  out  in  entire  juxtaposition  in 
front  of  the  head,  concealing  it  in  large  measure,  and 
entirely  enclosing  the  antennae.  There  is  an  arolium  or 
membranous  cushion  between  the  claws  of  the  five- 
jointed  tarsi,  enabling  them  to  adhere  firmly  to  plants. 


WALKING-STICKS  AND    WALKING-LEAVES.        43 

We  have  seen  that  the  tegmina,  or  elytra,  as  the  fore 
wings  are  called,  are  usually  of  small  size  or  absent,  and 
when  present  are  attached  at  the  posterior  part  of  the 
mesothorax.  Most  often  they  have  the  form  of  scales, 
and  cover  merely  the  base  of  the  wings,  and  are  coria- 
ceous, generally  raised  in  the  form  of  a  tubercle,  and 
opaque.  The  lower,  or  true  wings,  on  the  other  hand, 
may  be  very  large,  extending  in  repose,  in  a  limited 
number  of  species  however,  as  far  as  the  extremity  of 
the  abdomen,  without  exceeding  it,  and  are  attached  to 
the  anterior  part  of  the  metathorax.  This  attainment  of 
a  greater  development  of  the  wings  than  the  elytra  is 
opposed  to  what  obtains  in  the  other  families.  When 
one  of  the  pairs  of  appendages  are  wanting,  it  is  on  the 
elytra  the  complete  atrophy  falls.  In  the  genus  Aschi- 
pasma,  for  example,  one  finds  the  wings  fully  developed, 
but  elytra  none  ;  and  in  Phantasis  we  discover  vestiges 
of  hind  wings,  but  of  elytra  similarly  no  trace  whatever. 
True,  an  exception  occurs  among  Phyllium  females, 
where  the  upper  wings  become  developed  and  the  lower 
ones  dwindle  away  ;  but  this  is  for  a  special  purpose, 
which  will  be  dealt  with  later  on. 

In  the  absence  of  wing-covers  of  a  size  adequate  to 
protect  the  normal  wings  in  repose,  it  is  essential  that 
provision  be  made  for  their  defence.  This  is  effected  by 
the  outer  margin  of  the  hind  wing  itself,  which  is  greatly 
thickened,  serving  as  a  flat  plate  or  sheath  to  the  greater 


44  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

part  of  the  wing.  Beneath  it  the  wing  is  folded  longi- 
tudinally in  a  complicated  fan- like  manner,  and  reposes 
on  the  back  ;  and  seeing  the  narrow  condition  of  the 
body,  this  coriaceous  sheath-like  portion  must  be  narrow 
too,  in  order  to  adapt  itself  to  the  surface  of  the  abdomen. 
It  looks  as  if  it  were  really  a  tegmen  ;  moreover,  this 
appearance  is  enhanced  by  the  fact,  that  it  is  often  quite 
differently  coloured  from  the  rest  of  the  organ.  In  some 
species  it  is  green,  like  the  short  wing-covers,  whilst 
the  other  part  of  the  wing  is  pink.  Among  many, 
however,  both  organs  of  flight  exist  in  a  more  or  less 
rudimentary  state  (see  Fig.  17),  and  many  more  remain 
throughout  their  lives  without  ever  acquiring  wings  or 
wing- covers. 

The  antennae  are  very  variable  ;  and  the  same  remark 
applies  to  the  colour  of  the  body  in  many  Phasmidae, 
which  may  change  from  brown  in  early  life,  to  green, 
subsequently  returning  to  the  brown  tint.  If  this  be 
owing  to  the  presence  of  chlorophyll  or  other  plant- 
juices  among  the  insect-tissues,  its  explanation  is  not  far 
to  seek. 


Characteristics  and  Habits. 

Chiefly  inhabitants  of  tropical  countries,  these  insects 
are  extremely  sensitive  to  cold ;  the  occurrence  of  frost 
puts  an  end  to  their  existence.  They  live  on  vegetation, 


WALKING-STICKS  AND    WALKING-LEAVES.        45 

lying  close  to  leaves  and  the  branches  of  low  shrubs, 
and  are  strictly  herbivorous.  They  devour  the  leaves, 
and  especially  the  young  glutinous  or  gummy  shoots  of 
the  plants  on  which  they  reside,  and  with  a  voracity  so 
excessive  that  a  single  pair  will  destroy  a  great  quantity 
of  foliage,  so  that  in  some  parts  of  the  world  where  they 
abound  they  become  very  injurious.  This  occurs  in  the 
South  Sea  Isles,  in  the  case  of  Graeffea  coccophagus,  a 
brown  slender  species,  which  sometimes  commits  dreadful 
devastation  in  the  plantations  of  cocoanut  trees,  occa- 
sioning scarcity  of  food,  and  orders  have  been  issued 
by  the  chiefs  for  their  destruction.  One  writer  goes  so 
far  as  to  ascribe  the  cannibalism  in  some  of  these  islands 
to  the  want  of  food  caused  by  the  ravages  of  this  insect. 
Diapheromera  femorata,  common  over  the  greater  part 
of  the  United  States,  has  also  on  several  occasions 
appeared  in  such  numbers  as  to  be  seriously  destructive 
to  foliage  in  the  forests.  But  taken  as  a  whole,  they 
are  far  from  abundant  enough  to  do  any  real  harm. 


Immobility;   the  Reason  and  the    Use  thereof. 

Their  large  size  notwithstanding,  they  are  timid 
inoffensive  creatures,  and  of  sluggish  mode  of  life,  as 
their  structure  indicates-.  Their  body  is  much  too 
linear,  and  too  long,  in  the  majority  of  species,  to  be 


46  TRUE   TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

adapted  for  rapid  walking  ;  indeed,  the  entire  organization 
of  the  greater  number  is  such  as  to  impede,  rather  than 
to  give  play  to,  their  means  of  locomotion.  The  legs 
themselves,  feeble  and  of  inordinate  length,  sometimes 
almost  thread-like  and  very  fragile,  form  obviously  far 
from  perfect  ambulatory  organs.  When  their  owner 
attempts  to  stand  upright  it  appears  in  a  state  of 
unstable  equilibrium,  and  has  a  curious  lateral  swaying 
motion,  much  like  a  rope-walker,  that  is  most  ludicrous. 
Among  the  slenderest  species  the  limbs  seem  to  fulfil 
better  the  functions  of  grips  or  catches  than  of  ambula- 
tory organs,  permitting  of  the  insect  getting  from  one 
branch,  or  from  one  bush  to  another,  by  enabling  it  to 
lay  hold  of  distant  supports.  Motion  for  the  apterous 
species,  then,  is  slow  and  laborious,  and  they  pass  the 
greater  portion  of  their  time  in  a  state  of  immobility, 
applied  against  foliage,  only  shifting  their  quarters 
through  exigency  of  obtaining  food.  Doubtless  there 
are  forms  among  them  belonging  to  the  type  described, 
and  to  other  types,  that  approach  more  nearly  to  what 
we  may  call  the  normal  form,  whose  bodies  are  less 
slender,  their  legs  shorter  and  less  attenuated,  and  better 
fitted  for  walking,  but  none  the  less  they  are  sluggish 
insects,  which  live  clinging  to  the  branches  and  leaves 
of  plants. 

Winged  species  (see  Fig.  12),  like  the  giant  Acrophylla 
of  Australia,  which  has  a  comparatively  stout  body,  and 


WALKING-STICKS  AND    WALKING-LEAVES.        47 

the  different  kinds  of  Tropidoderus  and   Podacanthus, 
bulkier  still,  and  shorter,  have  greater  facility  of  move- 


FlG.  12. —  Tropidoderus  rhodomus. 

ment ;  but  the  large  wings  are  employed  rather  momen- 
tarily than  for  anything  properly  called  flight,  merely 
as  assistance  in  leaping  to  a  safer  place,  rather  than  for 
transport  to  long  distances. 


48  TRUE    TALES   OF   THE   INSECTS. 

Defenceless,  and  incapable  for  the  most  part  of  rapid 
movement  or  of  flight,  the  Walking-Sticks  have  no  other 
means  of  escape  from  their  enemies  than  to  pass  un- 
detected, in  concealing  their  existence  from  other  animals 
by  their  immobility.  It  is  this  immobility  that  renders 
effective  the  extraordinary  and  important  characteristic 
that  distinguishes  them — their  imitative  resemblance  to 
vegetative  objects.  Thanks  to  it,  they  succeed  in 
effectually  deceiving  the  eye  of  the  sharpest  enemy. 
Little  as  it  might  appear,  they  have  considerably  less 
to  fear  birds  as  foes,  by  which  some  are  much  relished 
for  food,  than  small  animals  that  prowl  among  the  bushes, 
particularly  lizards  ;  and  among  insects  the  Mantidse, 
which  live  in  the  same  spots,  and  are  armed  for  battle 
in  a  manner  that  no  Phasma  could  resist.  Several  bugs, 
too,  suck  the  Phasmidae.  One  species  is  known  to  have 
harboured  Ichneumon-flies  in  its  body  without  suffering 
any  apparent  harm  from  their  presence  or  their  emer- 
gence. There  is  perhaps  no  other  group  of  insects 
which  is  so  generally  imitative,  and  which  naturalists 
have  experienced  greater  difficulty  in  detecting  in  their 
haunts,  a  difficulty  heightened  by  their  habit  of  living 
solitary,  or  in  pairs.  Apterous  individuals,  such  as 
Diapheromera,  however,  seem  to  possess  gregarious 
tastes,  often  a  whole  colony  being  found  clustered  to- 
gether, distributed  over  the  branches  of  the  same  bush. 
Having  succeeded  in  discovering  one,  the  investigator, 


. 

WALKING-STICKS  AND    WALKING-LEAVES.        49 

to  his  surprise,  is  not  long  in  distinguishing  others, 
which,  owing  to  this  imitative  resemblance,  he  may  have 
seen  for  a  long  time,  have  even  examined  with  care, 
without  recognizing  anything  out  of  the  way,  mistaking 
the  living  insects  for  the  dead  branches. 


More  Means  of  Defence. 

Putting  on  one  side  for  the  present  this  wholesale 
Mimicry  of  the  Phasmidae,  with  its  protective  value,  we 
find  some,  at  least,  of  the  insects  in  the  possession  of 
peculiarities  which  perhaps  one  ought  to  consider  as 
means  of  defence.  The  prickles  and  spines  with  which 
the  Heteropteryx,  Extatosoma,  and  other  ugly  monsters 
are  clothed  must  make  them  somewhat  formidable 
morsels  for  insect-eaters  to  assail ;  and  there  are  many 
which  have  even  a  more  potent  means  of  defence  in  the 
power,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  of  ejecting  a  nauseous 
fluid.  One  species  is  named  Phasma  putidum,  from  the 
offensive  nature  of  the  secretion  discharged.  A  sluggish 
creature  common  in  some  of  the  United  States,  Aniso- 
morpha  will,  if  seized,  emit  a  vapour  that  slightly  burns 
one's  skin  ;  and  the  highly  acrid  fluid  squirted  out  by 
Graeffea  coccophagus  when  alarmed,  causes  great  pain,  and 
sometimes  blindness,  when  it  strikes  the  eyes  :  one  of  the 
South  African  species  is  said  to  be  able  to  eject  its  fetid 


50  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

fluid  to  a  distance  of  five  feet.  This  liquid  comes  from 
two  glands  or  pores  placed  in  the  prothorax,  more  or 
less  apparent  according  to  the  species.  In  some,  as 
among  Anisomorpha,  they  are  of  exceptional  size,  quite 
occupying  the  sides  of  the  thorax. 

For  some  of  the  Phasmidae  there  appears  to  be  another 
safeguard — for  those  remarkable  species  which  constitute 
the  rare  examples  which  are  believed  to  possess  aquatic 
habits.  An  odd  Brazilian  species,  one  of  the  Prisopi, 
has  the  peculiar  habit  of  hiding  under  stones  submerged 
in  the  mountain  streams,  being  enabled  so  to  do  by  the 
hollowed  lower  side  of  the  body,  and  the  dense  fringe  of 
hairs  with  which  it  is  in  various  parts  beset ;  it  is  sup- 
posed to  expel  the  air  from  the  body  so  as  to  adhere  to 
the  upper  surface  of  a  stone.  A  still  more  curious  insect, 
probably  allied  to  the  same  genus,  and  found  in  the  Isle 
of  Taviuni,  seems  even  more  profoundly  modified  for  an 
aquatic  life.  Along  the  lower  margins  of  the  sides  of 
the  metathorax  there  stand  straight  out  five  conspicuous 
fringed  plates,  said  to  be  a  kind  of  branchiae,  or  tracheal 
gills  ;  these  coexist  with  tracheae  opening  by  stigmata  on 
the  exterior  of  the  body  for  aerial  respiration. 


WALKING-STICKS  AND    WALKING-LEAVES.        51 


Curious  Power  of  reproducing  Lost  Limbs. 

A  curious  and  interesting  thing  about  these  creatures 
is  their  power  of  reproducing  lost  or  injured  limbs. 
Limbs  fragile  and  so  long  look  liable  to  be  broken, 
especially  in  the  insect's  early  stages  of  existence.  That 
the  accident  frequently  happens  may  be  judged  by  the 
numbers  of  individuals  one  sees  in  collections  having  one 
of  the  legs  disproportionately  small,  though  perfectly 
formed  throughout ;  and  sometimes  a  specimen  is  met 
with  with  the  two  corresponding  legs  thus  abbreviated. 
Experiment  shows  that  if  during  growth — that  is,  at  any 
time  previous  to  the  final  moult — a  leg  be  mutilated 
beyond  the  base  of  the  thigh,  the  whole  leg  as  far  as  the 
base  of  the  thigh  is  dropped  before  the  next  moult,  and 
at  this  moult  is  renewed,  either  as  a  straight  short  stump, 
in  which  the  articulations  are  already  observable,  or  as  a 
miniature  leg  ;  in  the  former  case,  the  leg  assumes  at 
the  next  moult  the  second  aspect ;  this  latter  form  being 
always  changed  at  the  succeeding  moult  into  a  limb 
practically  normal  in  every  respect  save  in  this — it  never 
gains  its  normal  size.  If  the  injury  to  the  leg  be  nearer 
to  the  body  than  the  base  of  the  thigh,  no  reproduction 
is  effected. 

Yet  another  interesting  feature  of  the  walking-sticks 
should  be  mentioned — the  frequent  extreme  difference  of 


52  TRUE   TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

the  sexes.  There  is  a  general  amount  of  resemblance 
between  the  males  in  being  usually  smaller,  slenderer, 
and  furnished  with  longer  legs  and  antennae  ;  the  females 
being  generally  more  robust  and  bulky,  and  with  shorter 
limbs.  Strange  to  say,  the  former  often  possess  full- 
sized  wings,  while  they  are  quite  wanting  in  the  other 
sex.  When  there  is  a  difference  between  them  as  to  the 
organs  of  flight,  they  are  more  fully  developed  in  the 
male.  On  the  other  hand,  the  resemblance  to  portions 
of  plants  is  greatest  in  the  female  sex. 


Remarkable  Nature  of  the 

But  of  all  the  strange  characteristics  of  the  Phasmidae, 
none  is  more  strange  than  the  eggs  they  lay.  Certainly 
they  are  of  a  most  remarkable  nature,  and  very  different 
from  insects'  eggs  in  general  (see  Fig.  13).  Hardly  any 
one  sees  them  without  observing  their  extreme  resem- 
blance to  seeds.  It  has  been  suggested  that  this  is  for 
the  purpose  of  deceiving  Ichneumons  ;  but  if  it  be  so,  the 
imposition  may  fail  of  effect,  since  the  eggs  are  known 
to  be  actually  destroyed  by  Ichneumons.  Those  of  Dia- 
pheromera  femorata  are  flattened  and  elliptical,  resembling 
beans,  with  an  oblique  yellow  punctured  lid  or  cap  at  one 
end  ;  they  are  brown,  with  one  side — which  shows  an 


WALKING-STICKS  AND    WALKING-LEAVES.        53 

elongated  pit — banded  with  yellow.     In  Bacteria  cornuta 
they    greatly    resemble    leguminous  seeds  ;    the    little 


t 


FIG.  13. — Eggs  of  different  walking-sticks. 


operculum  at  the  end  is  distinct  on  a  smooth  edge  which 
it  exactly  fits,  the  rest  of  the  surface  being  variously 
impressed.  In  some  species  the  cap  becomes  a  sort  of 
knob,  and  carvings  of  different  designs  are  seen  on  the 
sides  of  the  egg  itself,  particularly  about  the  part  that 
presents  the  sunken  pit.  These  eggs  are  deposited  in 
no  careful  way,  not  secured  to  any  object,  but,  it  is 
worthy  of  remark,  are  shed  like  seeds,  being  dropped  at 
random  loosely  on  the  ground  ;  for  the  mother,  unlike 
most  orthopterous  insects,  makes  no  provision  for  their 
safety.  The  noise  caused  by  the  dropping  of  the  eggs 
of  Diapheromera  femorata  from  the  plants  on  which  the 
insects  are  feeding  to  the  ground,  might  be  mistaken  for 
the  pattering  of  rain.  Thus  unprotected,  the  eggs  of 
this  species  sometimes  lie  till  the  second  year  before 
hatching. 

Yet  in  a  certain  way  the  egg  is  protected,  for  each 
egg   is    really    a   capsule    or    sac    containing    an    egg, 


54  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE  INSECTS. 

and  the  lid  or  cap  with  which  it  is  provided,  already 
referred  to,  is  pushed  off  by  the  embryo  when  about 
to  hatch. 

Although  the  present  state  of  investigation  does  not 
admit  of  speaking  definitely  on  the  point,  the  generally 
received  opinion  is  that  the  egg-capsules  are  formed  in 
the  egg-tubes,  only  one  egg  being  formed  at  a  time  in  a 
tube.  This  capsule  has  induced  some  investigators  to 
believe  that  the  egg  contained  therein  is  really  a  pupa  ; 
that  all  the  larval  stages  are  undergone  in  the  egg,  and 
that  the  insect  after  emergence  should  be  looked  upon 
as  an  active  pupa  that  takes  food.  Comparatively  few 
eggs  are  produced,  from  twelve  to  twenty  or  thirty 
being  the  usual  number,  but  more  have  been  noticed 
in  the  case  of  Diapheromera.  Laying  takes  place  in 
the  autumn,  emergence  between  the  months  of  May 
and  August. 

Perhaps  of  all  the  eggs,  those  of 'the  walking  leaves 
are  the  most  curious,  and  their  resemblance  to  seeds  is 
especially  striking.  At  different  times  specimens  of 
Phyllium  have  been  introduced  into  Europe,  and  raised 
from  the  egg,  affording  entomologists  the  opportunity  of 
studying  them.  The  egg-capsules  of  Pkyllium  scythe  are 
of  the  size  of  a  fair-sized  pea,  though  not  of  that  shape. 
"  If,"  says  Murray,  "  the  edges  of  the  seed  of  Mirabilis 
jalapa  were  rubbed  off,  the  seed  might  be  mistaken  for 
the  egg."  What  may  be  called  the  back  and  sides  are 


WALKING  STICKS  AND    WALKING-LEAVES.        55 

deeply  ridged,  and  the  front  is  flat,  with  a  slender  fusi- 
form plate  on  the  middle  ;  in  other  words,  all  the  ribs 
are  about  equi-distant,  except  two,  which  are  wider  apart, 
and  the  space  between  them  flatter,  so  that  when  the 
egg  falls  it  rolls  over  until  it  comes  to  this  side,  and  so 
lies.  All  except  the  front  is  pierced,  as  it  were,  with 
holes,  giving  the  porous  aspect  of  the  bark  of  trees.  At 
the  top  a  tiny  conical  lid,  roughly  resembling  a  Phrygian 
cap,  fits  tightly  to  the  mouth.  On  removing  the 
lid  a  beautiful  white  chamber  is  espied,  smooth  like 
porcelain. 

The  resemblance  to  seeds  displayed  by  these  eggs 
extends  not  alone  to  appearance  and  to  shedding,  but 
even  the  minute  structure  of  the  capsule  bears  a  close 
resemblance  to  vegetable  tissue.  It  has  been  examined 
by  several  entomologists ;  and  Henneguy,  who  enters 
into  some  detail  in  his  account  of  the  eggs  of  Phyllium 
crurifolium,  says,  ''Almost  every  botanist,  on  examining 
for  the  first  time  a  section  of  this  capsule,  would  declare 
that  he  is  looking  at  a  vegetable  preparation." 


The  Scramble  out  of  the  Egg ;  and  After. 

We  will  suppose  the  young  phasma  in  the  egg  to  have 
acquired  its  six  legs  and  to  be  ready  to  hatch.  In  the 
egg  it  is  packed  away  in  a  truly  marvellous  manner.  In 


56  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

the  full-grown  insect,  we  know,  the  three  parts  of  the 
thorax,  each  of  which  carries  one  pair  of  legs,  are  of  very 
unequal  length,  the  first  pair  of  legs  being  borne  by  the 
wonderfully  short  prothorax,  as  compared  with  which  the 
meso-  and  meta-thorax  are  remarkably  elongated.  But 
in  the  egg  this  great  difference  of  length  of  the  three 
divisions  does  not  exist,  so  that  the  legs  are  not  very 
far  apart,  and  pack  away  closely.  But  the  instant  the 
creature  has  fairly  escaped  from  its  prison-house,  the 
egg,  the  usual  difference  in  the  length  of  the  several 
thoracic  segments  is  attained  ;  much  expansion  of  the 
body  comes  about  during  the  withdrawal  out  of  the  egg, 
so  that  it  is  hard  to  understand  how  it  was  contained 
therein  ;  it  looks,  indeed,  like  a  juggler's  trick. 

.  Of  the  subsequent  development  of  the  insects,  prac- 
tically we  know  very  little.  But  the  observations  made 
indicate  great  differences  in  the  length  of  time  occupied 
by  it,  and  in  the  number  of  moults.  Some  species  are 
stated  to  moult  many  times  ;  Diapheromera  femorata  is 
said  to  reach  the  perfect  stage  in  six  weeks,  and  to  moult 
only  twice  ;  while  according  to  Murray,  who  had  some 
specimens  under  his  observation  during  the  whole  course 
of  their  development,  Phyllium  takes  no  less  than  fifteen 
or  sixteen  months  to  complete  its  growth,  and  during  that 
period  undergoes  only  three  moults,  the  first  of  which 
does  not  happen  until  the  tenth  month  after  hatching ; 
it  is  interesting  to  learn  that  the  first  moult  observed 


WALKING-STICKS  AND    WALKING-LEAVES.         57 

took  place  when  the  young"  Phyllium  had  attained  the 
length  of  an  inch.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  nothing 
is  more  difficult,  than  to  watch  all  the  successive  moults 
of  an  insect  of  the  orthopterous  order,  since  it  is  their 
habit — and  the  habit  has  been  remarked  in  Phyllium — 
to  devour  their  skin  almost  as  soon  as  it  is  shed  ;  all 
trace  of  the  occurrence  will  be  over  in  the  space,  say,  of 
half  an  hour. 

The  day  previous  to  the  transformation  the  young 
Phyllium  showed  signs  of  great  agitation,  and  the  body 
was  subject  to  repeated  shakings,  eventually  ending  in 
the  rupture  of  the  skin.  At  each  change  of  skin  there  is 
an  immediate  increase  in  size,  similar  to  the  enlargement 
occurring  on  emergence  from  the  egg,  each  limb  becom- 
ing about  a  fourth  larger  and  longer  than  the  correspond- 
ing portion  of  the  envelope  out  of  which  it  has  that 
moment  been  drawn.  In  Phyllium  the  abdomen  espe- 
cially enlarges  after  each  moult.  When  freshly  hatched 
it  is  of  a  reddish  yellow,  like  a  half-dried  leaf;  for  though 
the  colour  varies  at  different  periods  of  its  life,  it  always 
more  or  less  resembles  a  leaf.  After  it  has  settled  to  eat 
the  leaves  it  speedily  becomes  a  beautiful  bright  green. 
This  colour,  as  the  season  advances,  gets  mixed  with 
yellow,  almost  passing  to  the  tint  feuille-mort,  sug- 
gesting autumnal  foliage,  or  at  least  a  decaying  leaf, 
agreeable  to  the  very  tints  which  the  leaves  go  through 
themselves. 


58  TRUE   TALES    OF  THE  INSECTS. 

In  no  group  of  insects  as  a  whole  is  it  more  difficult 
to  distinguish  the  young  and  the  adult  states.  Among 
the  winged  species  it  is  not  always  possible  to  distinguish 
on  a  young  form  whether  it  will,  or  will  not,  in  course 
of  time,  receive  the  organs  of  flight.  According  to 
Murray,  the  wings  in  Phyllium  disclose  themselves  in 
the  period  of  youth  by  slight  swellings  on  the  meso-  and 
meta-thorax,  but  it  is  very  doubtful  if  this  character  is 
always  well  indicated.  In  Phyllium  the  organs  remain 
of  very  small  size  till  the  third  moult,  which  suddenly 
liberates  them  in  their  full  development ;  they  are  drawn 
out  of  little  cases  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long,  and 
a  few  brief  moments  suffice  for  them  to  attain  their 
perfect  size  of  about  two  and  a  half  inches  ;  half  an  hour 
after  the  last  moult  the  insect  is  fit  for  flight.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  their  long  antennae,  which  are  twenty- 
four  jointed  as  possessed  by  the  adult  males,  contrary  to 
the  females,  which  have  them  much  shorter,  consisting 
of  but  nine  joints.  But  these  organs  remain  rudimentary 
in  the  two  sexes  during  the  young  period  :  it  is  only 
in  the  last  moult  that  they  acquire  among  males  their 
normal  length,  suddenly  shooting  out  with  twenty-four 
joints.  Among  the  subapterous  insects  there  are  species 
which  keep  in  the  adult  state  the  wings  in  the  immature 
form,  analogous  to  that  of  the  young  insects.  We  cannot, 
therefore,  from  the  appearance  the  rudimentary  wings 
assume  deduce  any  positive  character,  that  can  help  us 


WALKING-STICKS  AND    WALKING-LEAVES.        59 

to  distinguish,  in  every  case,  the  larvae  from  the  adults. 
We  can  only  affirm  that,  as  often  as  the  elytrum  or  the 
wing  is  separate  and  articulated,  the  individual  is  an 
adult.  In  a  great  number  of  the  apterous  species  it  is 
often  quite  impossible  to  distinguish  the  larvae  and 
nymphs  from  the  perfect  insects. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

WALKING-STICKS    AND    WALKING- LEAVES    (PHASMID/E) 

continued. 


FiG.  14. — Acrophylla  titan. 

Marvellous  Imitative  Resemblance. 

WE  come  now  to  speak  of  that  wonderful  characteristic 
of  the  Phasmidae,  which  renders  them  amongst  the  most 
singular  of  known  insects,  which  is  most  likely  to  attract 
the  stranger,  from  which  they  have  been  given  their 
names — their  imitative  resemblance  to  vegetative  objects. 


FIG.  15. — A  Stick  Insect  (Phanodes  curuipes),  from  St.  Vincent. 


WALKING-STICKS  AND    WALKING-LEAVES.        63 

The  perfection  of  this  resemblance  in  certain  cases  one 
cannot  conceive  ;  it  is  marvellous  ;  no  insects  display 
this  kind  of  imitation  so  perfectly.  Those  with  slender 
body,  long  and  cylindrical,  so  as  to  resemble  sticks, 
might  be  mistaken  for  the  latter  with  all  the  minutiae  of 
knots  and  branches,  formed  by  the  insects'  legs,  which 
may  be  stuck  out  rigidly  and  unsym metrically.  Dr. 
Wallace,  the  naturalist,  familiar  with  them  in  tropical 
forests,  describes  them  in  the  Moluccas  "  hanging  on 
shrubs  that  line  the  forest  paths ;  and  they  resemble 
sticks  so  exactly  in  colour,  in  the  small  rugosities  of  the 
bark,  in  the  knots  and  small  branches  imitated  by  the 
joints  of  the  legs,  which  are  either  pressed  close  to 
the  body  or  stuck  out  at  random,  that  it  is  absolutely 
impossible  by  the  eye  alone  to  distinguish  the  real  dead 
twigs  which  fall  down  from  the  trees  overhead  from  the 
living  insects."  And  he  adds  that  he  has  "  often  looked 
at  them  in  doubt,  and  has  been  obliged  to  use  the  sense 
of  touch  to  determine  the  point."  Some  are  small  and 
slender,  like  the  daintiest  of  straws  or  twigs  ;  their  body 
sometimes  an  inch  and  a  half,  sometimes  barely  an  inch 
long,  the  legs  like  threads;  others  are  of  a  much  larger  and 
stouter  kind.  The  larger  wingless  sticks  (see  Fig.  15) 
are  often  eight  inches  to  a  foot  long.  Many  of  these 
are  hardly  thicker  than  a  knitting-needle.  In  Mexico, 
for  instance,  Phanocles  is  about  eleven  inches  long  in  all, 
and  exhibits  the  odd  knitting-needle  effect,  enlarging 


64  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

nowhere  in  circumference  except  at  the  base  of  the 
legs.  Some  species  of  Bacteria  are  so  excessively  slender 
that  the  linear  body  is  scarcely  as  thick  as  one  of  the 
legs  it  bears. 

Others,  again,  can  fly,  having  ample  wings,  and, 
oddly  enough,  often  gayly  coloured.  Look  at  the  large 
spectre  Acrophylla  titan  of  Australia,  a  giant  of  its  kind 
(see  Fig.  14)  :  its  charming  wings  generally  blackish 
brown  in  colour,  but  irregularly  spotted  and  banded 
with  white,  the  costal  portion  variegated  with  green 
and  pink,  and  expand  fully  eight  inches  ;  while  the  long 
cylindrical  body  itself  exceeds  this  length,  and  is  as  thick 
as  a  man's  little  finger.  Some  kinds  of  Tropidoderus 
and  Podacanthus,  also  from  Australia,  likewise  expand 
eight  and  even  nine  inches  in  flight,  and  have  a  stouter 
though  shorter  cylindrical  body.  Podacanthus  typhon, 
the  pink-winged  spectre,  is  one  of  the  showiest  species, 
owing  to  its  size  and  the  fine  pink  colour  which  tinges  the 
hyaline  wings ;  while  the  front  portion  of  the  wings,  like 
the  short  tegmina,  is  of  a  grass-green  :  but  when  at 
rest  the  immense  and  brilliant  wings  fold  up  like  a 
fan,  so  that  the  pink  colour  is  completely  concealed 
under  the  narrow  front  and  wing-covers,  and  the  whole 
stick-like  insect  is  then  green  or  brown,  and  almost 
invisible  among  the  twigs  or  foliage. 


WALKING-STICKS   AND    WALKING-LEAVES.         65 


Bizarre  Shapes  Galore. 

Almost  all  the  foregoing  forms  are  smooth-bodied, 
or  have  merely  little  insignificant  inequalities  of  skin. 
But  to  increase  the  resemblance  to  vegetation,  some  of 
these  Phasmas  have  the  oddest  unequal  surfaces  imagi- 
nable, so  that  they  resemble  the  roughened  bark  of 
the  trees  among  which  they  live,  or  bits  of  rotten  wood, 
or  lichen-covered  bark.  There  are  bizarre  appearances 
among  them  which  defy  description.  They  have  grow- 
ing to  them  or  sprouting  from  them  almost  everywhere, 
more  especially  from  the  abdomen  and  legs,  delicate 
small  green  processes  or  foliaceous  excrescences,  looking 
exactly  like  the  Hepaticae,  or  moss.  They  inhabit  damp 
forests  both  in  the  Malay  Isles  and  America,  and  it 
needs  careful  scrutiny  to  detect  that  the  apparent  piece 
of  rotten  moss-grown  twig  is  in  reality  a  living  insect. 
See  Ceroys  laciniatus  (Fig.  16)  from  Nicaragua;  how 
these  irregular  leaf-like  expansions  protrude  all  over  it ! 
Could  one  wish  for  anything  more  grotesque  than  the 
bulky,  prickly,  spiny,  briefly-winged  giant  Heteropteryx, 
from  India,  Borneo,  Sumatra,  and  Australia,  or  than 
a  Peruvian  Ceroys,  typifying  thorny  stems  ?  Or,  turn 
to  the  dilated-bodied  spectre  Extatosoma,  hailing  from 
Australia,  from  Tasmania,  and  New  Guinea,  enormously 
thick  as  compared  with  the  males,  and  with  both  the 


66  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

wings  and  the  wing-covers  rudimental,  like  tiny  sprouts. 
The  body  is  spinous,  furnished  with  membranous  lobes 
or  dilations  at  the  side  ;  it  is  spined  on  the  thorax,  the 
abdomen  is  spined,  so  are  the  dilations  of  the  legs, 
and  the  peculiar  small  pyramidal  head  is  strongly 
spinous  at  the  apex. 


End  gained  by  this  Mimicry. 

This  armature,  these  details  of  form  and  colouring, 
may  in  all  cases  be  regarded  as  developed  for  protective 
purposes.  Protection  in  resemblance,  and  thus  con- 
cealment, is  a  very  general  and  very  effectual  means  of 
maintaining  life  in  the  ceaseless  struggle  for  existence. 
Walking-sticks  being  perfectly  inoffensive  and  herbi- 
vorous, and  therefore  needing  no  special  qualification 
for  facilitating  capture  of  prey,  their  mimicry  is  purely 
defensive,  its  ultimate  end  to  elude  their  enemies. 
Obviously,  their  harmlessness,  their  solitary  instinct, 
their  sluggish  motions,  as  a  rule,  and  incapacity  for 
what  can  be  properly  called  flight,  their  soft  and 
succulent  nature,  so  that  they  are  eagerly  devoured,— 
render  them  particularly  open  to  attack.  Their  defence, 
their  very  existence,  depends  upon  their  being  by  form 
and  colour  concealed  from  enemies.  That  their  vege- 
table disguises  deceive  their  natural  enemies  the  numbers 


WALKING-STICKS  AND    WALKING-LEAVES.         67 

that  escape  destruction  prove  :  without  them,  they  must 
soon  be  exterminated.  There  is  no  family  to  which 
this  protection  is  more  indispensable,  and  in  none,  per- 
haps, is  it  so  generally  and  so  perfectly  possessed. 
Given  a  walking-stick  hugging  the  stem  of  a  bush  or 
a  leaf,  with  its  two  hinder  pairs  of  legs  stretched  straight 
alongside  the  body,  the  front  pair  outstretched  in  the 
opposite  direction,  and  the  antennae  snugly  tucked 
between  them,  the  deception  immeasurably  increased  in 
efficacy  by  its  immobility,  it  must  be  a  sharp-sighted 
creature  to  ever  discover  its  presence.  Even  those 
provided  with  the  most  splendid  and  expansive  wings 
use  them  rarely,  and  that  use,  as  we  have  seen,  is 
of  the  briefest  description.  Whenever  they  settle  the 
great  wings  close ;  their  beauties  are  no  longer  displayed. 
An  insectivorous  foe  spying  such  a  walking-stick  in 
flight,  and  making  for  it,  would  search  in  vain  for  what 
he  had  seen  ;  the  gorgeous  aerial  being  alighting,  had 
suddenly  transformed  itself  into  its  more  habitual 
unobservable  stick  shape. 


Leaf -Insects. 

All  these  Phasmidae  are  noted  for  their  lank  and 
usually  slender  bodies  and  legs.  But  there  is  an  ex- 
ceptional form  of  walking-stick.  These  have  remarkably 


68 


TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 


expanded  bodies ;  they  are  known  as  Walking-Leaves, 
from  the  striking  resemblance  they  present  to  the 

leaves  of  trees.  While  seated 
among  the  leaves  of  the  trees  on 
which  they  live,  no  more  exact  re- 
presentation of  a  growing  leaf 
could  be  conceived.  Not  one 
person  in  ten  can  see  a  leaf-insect 
when  resting  on  the  food  plant 
close  beneath  their  eyes.  It  is 
principally  the  tegmina  or  front 
wings  that  display  this  great  re- 
semblance in  Orthoptera,  and  in 
none  of  the  order  is  the  extra- 
ordinary phenomenon  more  marked 
than  it  is  in  these  Walking- Leaves, 
of  the  genus  Phyllium.  The  genus 
constitutes  by  itself  the  tribe  Phyl- 
Hides,  the  members  of  which 
belon&  Delusively  to  the  tropics 

leaf-like    expansions     pro-       of    the     Old     World,    Coming     from 
trude  all  over  it.  .  . 

the     Philippine     Isles,    Java,    and 

Ceylon  ;  in  fact,  they  extend  from  Mauritius  and  the 
Seychelles  even  as  far  east  as  the  Fiji  Isles,  having, 
it  would  appear,  a  strange  penchant  for  insular  life. 
Although  the  group  has  been  very  inadequately  in- 
vestigated, some  twenty  species  are  known,  and  the 


WALKING-STICKS  AND    WALKING-LEAVES.         69 

individuals  are  believed  to  be  not  uncommon,  notwith- 
standing the  limited  number  of  specimens  that  our 
collections  contain. 

As  will  be  seen  from  Fig.  18,  the  resemblance  to  a 
leaf  of  the  tegmina  is  of  the  most  remarkable  nature, 
and  the  other  details  must  add  greatly  to  the  deceptive 
appearance  in  their  native  haunts.  The  imitation  of  a 
leaf  is  carried  out  with  a  degree  of  exactitude  so 
surprising,  that  it  seems,  in  truth,  that  the  whole  insect 
has  been  shaped  and  charged  with  appendages  to 
produce  the  perfect  resemblance.  The  body,  which 
escapes  completely  from  the  family  type,  has  become 
large,  oval,  and  depressed  ;  the  antennae  have  become 
extremely  short,  and  are  flattened  ;  all  the  legs 
compressed  and  dilated  in  leaflet  form  ;  the  hind  wings 
atrophied,  being  represented  merely  by  a  minute 
process ;  while  to  the  broad  leaf-like  tegmina  lying 
flat  on  the  back,  the  head  and  small  prothorax  together 
form,  as  it  were,  the  swollen  petiole  or  leaf-stalk,  on 
both  sides  of  which  the  flat  leaf-like  expansions  on  the 
front  legs  answer  admirably  as  stipules.  The  insects 
feed  only  at  night,  resting  motionless  during  the  day, 
aiding  them  to  elude  detection.  During  the  early 
stages,  when  the  insect  does  not  possess  the  tegmina, 
it  is  said  then  to  adapt  itself  to  the  appearance  of  leaves, 
by  the  movements  it  makes,  and  the  positions  it  assumes 
augment  the  resemblance. 


70  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

In  these  wonderful  Eastern  leaf-insects  of  the  genus 
Phyllium,  it  is  the  female  only  that  so  marvellously 
imitates  a  green  leaf;  she  alone  is  possessed  of  the  large 
leaf-like  tegmina.  The  males  of  the  genus  are  altogether 
different  from  the  females ;  having  instead  of  the 
foliaceous  tegmina,  short  wing-covers  that  are  not  leaf- 
like,  while  the  gauzy  hind  wings,  which  are  particularly 
large  and  conspicuous,  are  totally  devoid  of  leaf-like 
appearance. 


Tegmen  of  the  Female  an  Exceptional  Structure. 

This  disguise  of  the  female  in  respect  of  its  tegmina 
is  striking  to  a  naturalist  from  various  points  of  view. 
He  will  notice  that  whereas  when  there  is  in  insects  a 
difference  between  the  organs  of  flight  of  the  two  sexes, 
the  male  has  them  largest,  the  very  opposite  is  true  of 
Phyllium  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  normal  condition  is  adhered 
to  so  far  as  the  hind  wings  are  concerned,  but  in  the 
front  pair  the  rule  is  reversed,  the  leaf-like  tegmina  of 
the  female  exceeding  greatly  the  rudimentary  wing- 
covers  of  the  male.  He  will  also  observe  as  one  of  the 
peculiar  traits  of  the  family,  a  trait  shown  by  all  other 
members  of  the  tribe,  that  the  wing-covers  or  tegmina 
(when  they  exist)  are  greatly  abbreviated,  even  when 
the  wings  are  largely  developed.  This  is  the  case  in 


WALKING-STICKS  AND    WALKING-LEAVES.        71 

the  male  of  Phyllium,  but  the  female  offers  precisely 
the  opposite  character  —  the  wing-covers,  the  only 
members  susceptible  of  such  exact  mimicry  of  a  leaf, 
being  greatly  developed,  while  the  wings  are  aborted. 
There  is  this  to  be  pointed  out,  that  had  the  wings,  and 
not  the  tegmina,  been  made  to  resemble  a  leaf,  the 
mesothorax  would  have  remained  entirely  visible  ;  it 
would  have  spoilt  the  perfection  of  the  resemblance  of 
the  insect  and  a  leaf,  by  forming  with  the  head  and 
prothorax  a  petiole,  as  it  were,  too  large,  and  too 
apparent.  Nature  has  then,  contrary  to  the  general 
rule,  atrophied  the  wings  and  developed  the  tegmina, 
to  obtain  the  appearance  of  a  leaf  over  the  largest 
surface  of  the  body  possible.  The  great  reduction  of 
size  of  the  prothorax  and  antennae,  parts  which  would 
equally  interfere  with  the  resemblance,  is  likewise  to  be 
included  in  this  artifice,  tending  to  the  same  end. 

Another  surprising  thing — it  is  probable  that  the 
female  tegmen  of  Phyllium  is  a  structure  as  peculiar 
morphologically  as  it  is  in  other  respects.  In  order  the 
better  to  imitate  a  leaf,  the  radial  vein  is  placed  quite 
close  to  the  posterior  edge,  permitting  the  radial  veins 
of  the  tegmina,  when  they  come  together,  to  juxtapose, 
typifying  the  principal  nerve  or  mid-rib  of  a  leaf.  The 
lateral  ribs  of  the  leaf  are  represented  exactly  by 
the  oblique  costal  veins.  It  will  thus  be  plain,  that 
the  tegmina  of  female  Phyllium  not  only  break  a  rule 


72  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

that  is  almost  universal  in  the  Insecta,  and  reverse  the 
normal  condition  in  the  family  to  which  they  belong  ; 
but  also  differ  widely  from  the  same  parts  of  its  mate, 
and,  moreover,  are  completely  different — in  quite  an 
exceptional  manner  for  a  Phasmid — from  its  own  other 
pair  of  organs  of  flight. 

This  extreme  resemblance  of  Phyllium  to  a  leaf  has 
attracted  the  notice  even  of  the  natives  of  the  tropics 
where  they  abound,  where  little  or  nothing  is  known  of 
natural  history.  In  many  such  places,  as  in  the  Indies, 
it  has  given  rise  to  the  singular  belief  that  the  insects 
are  truly  transformed  leaves,  by  which  the  inhabitants 
understand  a  bud  developing  into  a  leaf,  and  subsequently 
being  converted  into  a  walking-leaf  insect.  We  have 
evidence  of  the  idea  obtaining  credence  in  Ceylon,  and 
no  explanation  could  shake  the  rooted  conviction  in  the 
reality  of  this  miracle. 

When  first  brought  into  notice  in  this  country  they 
created  unbounded  surprise.  Thus  Richard  Bradley,  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  at  one  time  Professor  of 
Botany  in  the  University  of  Cambridge,  writes  of  them 
m  J739>  i°  a  philosophical  work,  in  a  fashion  fully  as 
grotesque  as  any  legend  of  the  countries  which  they 
inhabit.  This  fanciful  author  regards  them  as  exhibiting 
identity  of  animal  and  vegetable  development,  ''being 
nourish'd,"  he  observes,  "as  well  by  the  Juices  of  the 
Tree,  which  the  Mother  Insect  lays  its  eggs  in,  as  by  its 


WALKING-STICKS  AND    WALKING-LEAVES.        73 

own."  This  bald  statement  he  gravely  gives  in  more 
elaborate  guise:  "The  Insect,  when  it  has  found  its 
proper  Tree  of  Nourishment,  lays  its  eggs  separately  in 
the  Buds  of  it,  which  hatch  when  the  Buds  begin  to 
shoot ;  the  Insect  then  is  nourished  by  the  Juices  of  the 
Tree,  and  grows  together  with  the  Leaves  till  all  its 
Body  is  perfected  ;  and  at  the  Fall  of  the  Leaf,  drops 
from  the  Tree  with  the  Leaves  growing  to  its  Body  like 
Wings,  and  then  walks  about ;  this  is  not  common 
enough  with  us  to  be  easily  believed,  and  what  I  should 
not  have  ventured  to  mention  in  this  place,  if  the  Insects 
themselves  were  not  to  be  met  with  in  the  curious 
Cabinets  of  our  own  Country. 

"  What  I  account  the  most  curious  point  belonging  to 
this  Relation  is,  That  the  Sap  of  any  Tree  should  be  so 
naturally  adapted  to  maintain  at  once  both  Vegetable 
and  Animal  Life  ;  and  by  that  means  to  unite  the  Parts 
of  two  Beings,  so  distinct  from  one  another  as  Plants 
and  Animals,  and  circulate  the  same  Juices  equally  in 
the  Vessels  of  both.  .  .  .  That  a  Leaf  of  a  Plant  should 
so  unite  itself  with  an  Insect  as  to  make  one  distinct 
living  Body  is  wonderful." 

All  one  can  say  is,  the  remarkable  appearance  of  the 
insects  affords  some  excuse  for  the  absurdities  of  this 
romantic  story. 

Somewhat  more  than  a  century  later,  the  eggs  of  one 
of  these  insects  were  introduced  from  India  to  Edinburgh, 


74 


TRUE    TALES    OF  THE  INSECTS. 


where  they  hatched,  and  the  living  insects  were  under 
the  observation  of  the  late  Mr.  Andrew  Murray  for 
nearly  eighteen  months  in  the  Royal  Botanic  Garden. 


Strangers  used 
vain  to  distin- 
lium  from  the 
leaves.  Mr. 
one  :  "  For  the 
of  its  life  it  so 
bled  the  leaf  on 
that  when 
shown  it  they 
looking  care- 
plant  for  a  mi- 
declared  that 
no  insect.  It 
more  minutely 
them ;  and  al- 
is  notoriously 
1  i  e  v  i  ng,  it 
lutely  the  same 
among  which  it 


FIG.  \7,—Graeffeacoccophagiis. 


to  search  in 
guish  Phyl- 
su  r  rou  nd  i  ng 
Murray  says  of 
greatest  period 
exactly  resem- 
which  it  fed, 
visitors  were 
usually,  after 
fully  over  the 
nute  or  two, 
they  could  see 
had  then  to  be 
pointed  out  to 
though  seeing 
said  to  be  be- 
looked  so  abso- 
as  the  leaves 
rested  that  this 
fied  them,  and 


test  rarely  satis- 
nothing  would  convince  them  that  there  was  a  real  live 
insect  there  but  the  test  of  touch.  It  had  to  be  stirred 
up  to  make  it  move." 

The  same  was  true  of  some  specimens  exhibited  alive 


WALKING-STICKS  AND    WALKING-LEAVES. 


75 


in  1867,  at  the  Jardin  d'Acclimatation  at  Paris.  They 
were  placed  on  a  growing  bush,  from  which  most  of  the 
leaves  were  stripped,  that  they  might  be  more  easily 
perceived.  «  If  a  large 

placard  had 
nounced  the 
the  insects, 
would  have 
anythingex- 


and  as  it 
persons, 
fully  exa- 
case,  went 
out  being 
having  seen 
but  the 
vinced  that 
referred  to 
microscopic, 
for  their 
those  who 
quai  n  ted 
aspect  of 


not 
presence 


n  o 


a  n  - 
of 
one 


FIG.  1 8.— A  Walking-Leaf  (Phy Ilium 
scythe),  from  Silhet. 


recognized 
traordinary ; 
was,  many 
after  care- 
mining  the 
away  with- 
a  ware  of 
anything 
bush,  con- 
the  placard 
something 
too  minute 
sight.  Even 
were  ac  - 
with  the 
walking- 


leaves    had    often  a  long  search  to  discover  what  was 
in  reality  before  their  eyes. 


76  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 


Distribution. 

Not  the  genus  Phyllium  alone  is  exotic,  the  whole  family 
of  Phasmidae  is  eminently  tropical.  About  six  hundred 
species  of  the  family  are  known — by  the  way,  a  number 
small  in  comparison  with  that  in  many  of  the  large  families 
of  Insecta — but  only  four  or  five  are  found  in  Europe, 
slender  apterous  green  or  brown  kinds,  measuring  but 
two  or  three  inches  in  length  ;  and  they  are  all  restricted 
to  the  south,  only  one  reaching  as  far  north  as  Central 
France.  They  belong  to  the  genus  Bacillus,  and  while 
common  enough  in  the  female  form,  in  comparison  the 
males  are  extremely  rare.  In  the  temperate  regions  of 
America  we  find  similar  restriction. 

In  the  warm  portions  of  the  globe  Phasmidae  are  of 
almost  universal  distribution.  Formerly  India  and  the 
isles  of  the  Indian  Archipelago  were  regarded  as  con- 
stituting the  metropolis  of  the  group,  but  recent  re- 
searches seem  rather  to  point  to  Australia  as  the  region 
where  they  are  now  most  largely  developed.  A  species 
of  Podacanthus  is  so  common,  that  it  is  rare  in  the 
summer-time  in  any  part  of  Australia  to  find  a  gum-tree 
without  a  few  feeding  upon  it ;  and  occasionally  the  trees 
for  miles  will  be  denuded  of  their  foliage  by  it.  New 
Zealand  has  several  species  of  Phasmidae,  differing  from 
the  Australian  forms,  and  all  wingless.  Of  America  it 


WALKING-STICKS  AND    WALKING-LEAVES         77 

may  be  remarked,  that  not  only  is  it  less  rich  in  Phasmidae 
than  the  Oriental  hemisphere,  but  the  species  there  have 
a  tendency  more  pronounced  to  remain  apterous. 
Among  what  may  be  called  wingless  species  of  the 
Orient,  more  usually  the  rudiments  of  wings  are  apparent, 
or  the  wings  are  more  or  less  developed,  although  of 
the  briefest  description.  From  these  differences,  and 
others,  it  follows  that  the  genera  of  the  different  conti- 
nents are  in  great  part  distinct.  Not  only  is  this  the 
case,  but  the  greater  number  of  species  are  confined 
within  somewhat  narrow  geographical  limits.  It  is  easy 
to  understand  how  insects  so  little  addicted  even  to 
walking  do  not  spread  rapidly,  and  that,  seeing  their 
absolute  dependence  on  plants  which  serve  at  once  as 
their  abode  and  their  nutriment,  they  are  affected  more 
strongly  than  others  by  the  modifying  influence  of  the 
places  which  they  inhabit ;  whence  it  comes  that  each 
little  region  possesses  its  species. 

Existence  is  possible  to  the  Phasmidae  only  in  verdant 
regions,  where  delicate  nourishment  is  always  to  be  had 
within  reach.  They  could  not  live  in  a  dry  climate,  and 
on  a  soil  often  deprived  of  vegetation,  their  limited 
powers  of  locomotion  being  an  insurmountable  obstacle 
to  their  travelling  over  great  distances  in  search  of  food. 
These  facts  explain  at  once  the  rarity  of  phasmidae  in 
tropical  Africa,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  pre- 
eminently affect  the  humid  and  verdant  isles  of  the 


7?>  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS 

tropics,  and  it  is  for  those  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  as 
before  mentioned,  they  show  partiality.  Even  species 
with  large  individuals  seem  to  be  able  to  continue  their 
existence  in  comparatively  small  isles. 


That   Walking- Sticks  come  of  a  Remote  Antiquity. 

Few  groups  of  insects  are  so  specialized  ;  and  one 
would  naturally  expect  these  bizarre  creatures  to  be  the 
outcome  of  a  long  series  of  forms  in  a  special  line  of 
development.  Some  insects,  said  to  belong  to  the  genera 
Phasma  and  Bacteria,  have  been  found  fossil  in  one  or 
two  fragments  in  amber,  belonging  to  the  early  part  of 
the  tertiary  period.  No  phasmid  has  been  unearthed 
from  the  great  formations  of  the  mesozoic  period,  so 
that,  with  the  exception  of  a  single  insect-fossil  from  the 
tertiary  strata  in  North  America  which  has  been  recently 
referred  to  this  family,  but  probably  in  mistake,  we 
know  nothing  of  fossil  walking-sticks  older  than  the 
remains  preserved  in  amber.  It  must  be  stated,  how- 
ever, that  the  upper  coal-measures  of  Comrnentry, 
France,  have  suddenly  revealed  a  considerable  number 
of  forms  that  may  be  connected  with  our  living  Phas- 
midae,  a  discovery  carrying  these  Orthoptera  back  at 
once  to  the  remote  antiquity  of  paleozoic  times. 
M.  Brongniart  describes  two  remarkable  gigantic  insects 


WALKING-STICKS  AND    WALKING-LEAVES.        79 

from  the  carboniferous  beds.  Both  he  and  Scudder 
have  treated  these  fossils  as  forming  a  distinct  family 
called  Protophasmidae.  So  far  as  we  know  them,  these 
early  types  differed  from  those  of  to-day  by  being 
invariably  winged,  and  in  that  both  pairs  of  wings 
were  adapted  for  flight ;  the  front  pair — what  we  now 
call  wing-covers,  or  tegmina — being  not  leathery  and 
thickened,  as  now,  serving  as  mere  protective  flaps  to 
the  closed  hinder  pair,  but  were  as  large  and  diaphanous 
as  their  posterior  fellows  :  these  ancient  insects  explain 
the  origin  of  our  living  giants,  being  twenty-five  to 
fifty  centimetres  long,  and  as  much  as  seventy  in  spread 
of  wing.  To  them  have  been  referred,  on  inferential 
grounds,  a  whole  group  of  detached  wings  found  in 
carboniferous  beds  in  Europe  and  America.  They 
further  differed  from  modern  types  in  having  the  several 
parts  of  the  thorax  more  nearly  equal  in  length — 
similar,  in  fact,  to  the  condition  while  still  in  the  egg 
of  walking-sticks  of  to-day  ;  thus  illustrating  once  more, 
what  many  naturalists  believe,  that  in  the  development 
of  the  individual  we  may  trace,  more  or  less  completely, 
the  ancestral  development  of  the  race. 

The  Phasmidae  are  a  singularly  isolated  group  ;  we 
discover  no  transition  properly  so  called  between  this 
family  and  others.  So  far  as  appearance  goes,  they 
approach  most  closely  the  mantidae  ;  their  forms  are 
sometimes  very  much  alike  ;  in  several  mantids 


8o  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE   INSECTS. 

(Thespis,  etc.)  the  body  is  even  as  slender  and  cylin- 
drical as  among  Phasmidae.  Yet  there  is  no  real  affinity 
between  them,  essential  differences  distinguish  these 
groups  ;  differences  relating  to  the  modifications  of  nearly 
every  part  of  the  body,  in  connection  with  habits  diametri- 
cally opposed.  Still,  one  can  hardly  but  say  there  is  a 
sort  of  parallelism  between  them  ;  the  two  families  con- 
stituting, so  to  speak,  two  collateral  series,  the  one 
representing  the  herbivorous,  the  other  the  carnivorous 
type  of  the  same  form. 


SAL  TA  TORI  A 
/ 

CHAPTER   V. 

X 

LOCUSTS    AND    GRASSHOPPERS 


FIG.  19. — A  Grasshopper  (  7 rnxalis  Pharaonis}. 

THE  reader  will  perceive,  on  referring  to  the  Contents, 
that  the  families  of  the  Orthoptera  are  divided  into 
two  sections.  He  will  observe  that  the  Mantidse  and 
Phasmidae,  already  considered,  belong  to  the  Cursoria, 
or  Runners,  their  hind  legs  being  but  little  different  from 
the  others.  We  come  now  to  speak  of  two  families 
pertaining  to  the  Saltatorial  group,  each  remarkable  for 
their  saltatory  powers,  due  to  the  great  development  of 
the  hind  legs,  which  are  more  elongate  than  the  others, 


82  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE  INSECTS. 

and  have  thick  and  powerful  thighs.  As  compared  with 
the  Mantidae  and  Phasmidae,  which  are  amongst  the 
most  distinct  of  any  subdivisions  of  the  Insecta,  these 
families  are  much  more  intimately  allied.  Technically, 
they  are  known  as  Acridiidse  and  Locustidae ;  but, 
unfortunately,  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  confusion 
between  the  scientific  and  common  names,  the  latter 
not  corresponding  in  their  application  with  the  family 
limits.  The  names  Grasshopper  and  Locust  are  almost 
synonymous.  Not  only  in  a  popular  sense,  but  even  by 
scientists,  the  word  "  grasshopper "  is  applied  at  one 
time  to  the  true  locusts  or  to  the  various  species  that 
constitute  the  Acridiidse,  and  at  another  to  species 
belonging  to  the  Locustidae;  "grasshopper,"  in  fact,  is 
a  collective  term  used  to  include  most  of  the  species  of 
two  different  families.  Notwithstanding  this  difficulty 
in  applying  the  popular  name,  the  distinctions  between 
the  insects  composing  the  families  are  readily  recognized. 
Briefly  stated,  while  the  Locustidae  are  usually  found 
on  the  grass,  bushes,  and  trees,  and  have  very  long 
thread-like  antennae,  generally  longer  than  the  body,  and 
the  tarsi  four-jointed  ;  Acridiidae  includes  those  species 
which  generally  reside  on  the  ground,  they  have  antennae 
of  less  than  thirty  joints,  never  exceeding  the  body  in 
length,  and  the  feet  or  tarsi  short,  with  three  distinct 
joints.  With  the  Acridiidae  we  commence  our  con- 
sideration of  the  Saltatoria. 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRIDIID^E}.     83 

This  family  contains  the  majority  of  the  species,  a 
very  large  number,  varying  considerably  in  form  and 
character ;  it  is  the  most  numerous  in  species  and 
individuals  of  any  of  the  families  of  Orthoptera.  The 
small  grasshoppers  which  are  common  in  our  fields  give 
a  very  good  idea  of  their  general  appearance.  Active 
little  insects  having  a  body  laterally  somewhat  com- 
pressed, a  large  head,  conspicuous  eyes,  the  hind  legs 
formed  for  leaping,  the  wings  in  repose  deflexed  and 
pressed  to  the  sides,  our  native  grasshoppers,  however 
insignificant  and  unimportant,  represent  the  family  quite 
as  truly  as  do  its  many  more  imposing,  remarkable, 
and  interesting  species. 

Anatomy. 

In  dealing  with  a  family  so  active  as  a  rale,  so  famous 
for  the  extraordinary  movements  of  some  of  its  members, 
one  turns  naturally  to  investigate  their  instincts  and 
general  intelligence.  But  it  is  hard  for  us  to  appreciate 
the  intelligence  of  insects.  It  depends  in  them,  of 
course,  largely  on  the  development  of  the  organs  of 
special  sense ;  and  the  study  of  sensations,  if  one  of  the 
most  fascinating,  is  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  most 
difficult  of  the  departments  of  entomology.  Recent 
research  has  resulted  in  much  definite  knowledge  of  the 
structure  of  the  sense-organs,  but  there  is  a  great  lack  of 


84  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

experimental  basis  for  conclusions  as  to  the  functions  of 
the  various  organs  described.  However,  there  is  a  great 
variation  in  the  degree  of  perfection  of  the  different 
senses  in  different  insects. 

The  sense  of  sight  must  be  well  developed  in  the 
Acridiidae,  for  they  are  furnished  with  two  large  well- 
developed  compound  eyes,  and  three  simple  ones  (ocelli), 
supplied  with  nerves  of  special  sense.  The  compound 
eyes  are  situate  at  the  sides  of  the  head  ;  in  front  are  the 
ocelli,  one  on  each  side  between  the  eye  and  the  insertion 
of  the  antenna ;  the  third  ocellus  being  in  the  middle, 
immediately  in  front  of  the  base  of  the  antennae.  This 
family  is  one  of  the  large  groups  of  insects  in  which  the 
coexistence  of  the  two  kinds  of  eyes  is  most  constant. 
The  ocelli,  however,  vary  much  in  their  development, 
being  in  some  cases  prominent  and  easily  perceived, 
while  in  others  they  are  very  imperfect,  difficult  to 
detect,  apparently  functionally  useless.  In  what  way 
the  insects  specially  need  two  sorts  of  eyes,  is  not  clear. 
Later  on  we  shall  see  that  a  similar  condition  in  regard 
to  sensitiveness  to  sound  is  believed  to  exist  in  this 
family.  The  antennae  are  organs  of  touch  ;  and  the  palpi 
not  only  serve  the  same  function,  but  probably  are 
endowed  with  the  sense  of  taste. 

It  need  hardly  be  said  an  insect  breathes  by  means  of 
a  complicated  system  of  air-tubes  or  tracheae,  ramifying 
through  every  part  of  its  structure,  and  communicating 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS   (ACRIDIID^}.     85 

with  the  air  by  a  row  of  spiracles,  or  air-holes,  or  breath- 
ing-holes (stigmata),  in  the  sides  of  the  body.  Acridiidae 
are  remarkable  amongst  the  Orthoptera  for  the  possession 
of  air-sacs  or  vesicular  dilatations  in  the  interior  of  the 
body  in  connection  with  the  tracheae.  Many  winged 
insects  possess  such  vesicles.  In  bees,  wasps,  moths 
and  butterflies,  flies,  and  in  some  beetles,  and  some  bugs, 
they  are  found  well  developed,  being  most  numerous 
and  capacious  in  volant  insects  which  sustain  the  longest 
and  most  powerful  flight.  But  in  the  larval  or  immature 
forms  of  these  they  do  not  exist,  nor  do  they  occur  in 
truly  apterous  insects.  In  the  flying  locusts  they  are  as 
numerous  and  as  large  as  in  any  group,  more  numerous 
perhaps  than  in  the  bee  in  proportion  to  the  body, 
while  certainly  there  is  a  greater  number  of  large  sacs, 
and  both  sexes  are  equally  well  provided.  Packard 
describes  the  distribution  of  these  remarkable  elastic 
sacs  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locust.  There  is  a 
thoracic  set,  consisting  of  a  pair  of  very  large  size, 
with  which  are  connected  some  smaller  ones  in  the 
head ;  and  an  abdominal  set.  The  last  are  very  extra- 
ordinary, being  of  such  large  size  that  they  may  be 
regarded  as  only  becoming  fully  expanded  at  a  time 
when  the  body  being  comparatively  empty,  food  being 
wanting,  there  is  no  normal  distention  of  the  alimentary 
canal,  and  the  other  contents  of  the  body  are  as  yet 
undeveloped.  Although  according  to  one  observer  they 


86  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

are  present  even  in  apterous  forms  of  Acridiidae,  distinct 
vesicles  are  absent  in  the  neighbouring  groups  of  Or- 
thoptera.  Those  Orthoptera  which  do  not  take  long 
flights  have  no  need  of  air-vessels. 

No  doubt  they  are  connected  with  the  power  of  flight  ; 
doubtless  they  assist  the  insect  in  its  aerial  movements. 
The  body  of  a  large  grasshopper  or  locust  is  naturally 
of  considerable  weight,  and  it  seems  certain  true  flight 
can  only  be  effected  when  the  sacs  are  dilated  and  filled 
with  air.  That  by  filling  and  partially  emptying  them 
during  the  process  of  breathing  the  insect  is  enabled 
to  enlarge  its  bulk  and  alter  its  specific  gravity  at 
pleasure,  so  as  to  render  itself  capable  of  rising  and 
supporting  itself  on  the  wing  with  little  muscular  effort, 
was  first  assumed  by  Sir  John  Hunter;  and  inference 
and  observation  confirm  the  view  that  the  use  of  the 
vesicles  is  to  lighten  the  body,  to  float  up  the  insect  in 
the  air.  The  precise  mode  in  which  they  are  dilated 
is  not  understood.  With  its  sacs  in  full  play,  plainly  a 
locust  becomes  an  aeronaut,  a  sort  of  balloon. 

To  this  fact  are  largely  due  the  enormous  powers  of 
flight  possessed  by  these  insects  ;  the  intimate  association 
of  the  complex  arrangement  of  air-tubes  and  air-sacs 
with  the  powers  of  flight  is  very  evident.  It  will  be 
seen  that,  once  having  risen  from  the  ground,  the  insect 
can  sail  for  hours  in  the  air,  constantly  filling  and  re- 
filling its  internal  buoys  or  balloons,  and  thus  be  wafted 


LOCUSTS  AND   GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRWIID^E).     87 

straight  on  its  course  for  miles  by  favouring  winds. 
Meanwhile,  scarcely  as  much  muscular  force  is  spent 
through  the  day  as  is  exerted  during  a  few  vigorous 
hops.  Towards  evening,  and  in  damp  and  cloudy 
weather,  the  powers  of  flight  are  lessened,  owing  to  the 
diminished  power  of  respiration.  In  the  possession  and 
use  of  these  air-sacs,  locusts  may  be  compared  with 
birds. 

When  in  addition  to  the  sacs  we  find  many  expanded 
or  dilatable  tracheae,  chiefly  in  parts  of  the  body  where 
there  is  not  room  for  the  sacs  themselves,  we  can  duly 
estimate  the  wondrous  powers  of  the  locust  as  an 
aeronaut. 

Intellectually  the  Acridiidae  appear  to  be  the  equals 
of  most  other  insects,  while  many  are  inferiorly  endowed. 
Those  that  excel  them  in  this  respect  are  the  ants  and 
bees  or  wasps,  the  social  hymenoptera,  which  have  a 
brain  constructed  on  a  higher,  more  complicated,  plan 
than  in  the  other  winged  insects.  It  must  be  under- 
stood that  the  word  "  brain "  so  applied  is  a  mere 
courtesy  term,  as  the  brain  of  our  insects  does  not 
correspond  to  the  brain  of  a  vertebrate  animal.  It 
consists  of  a  double  ganglion,  placed  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  head,  the  first  and  largest  of  the  two  ganglia 
therein.  Moreover,  it  is  a  much  more  complicated  organ 
than  any  of  the  others,  having  parts  which  are  wanting 
in  them,  hence  it  is  par  excellence  nearer  to  our  idea 


88  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 

of  a  brain  than  any  of  the  other  ganglia.  The  other 
ganglia  are  eight,  three  thoracic  and  five  abdominal. 
This  series  of  nerve-centres,  connected  by  nervous 
cords,  together  constitute  the  nervous  system. 


The    Gift   of  Song. 

If  the  Acridiidse  are  remarkable  amongst  the  Orthop- 
tera  for  their  air-sacs,  they  are  no  less  interesting  on 
account  of  another  wondrous  possession,  which  they 
share  in  common  with  the  other  Saltatoria — their  gift 
of  song.  Singers  in  the  true  sense  they  are  not ;  they 
should  rather  be  called  minstrels  ;  for,  strictly  speaking, 
owing  to  their  peculiar  mode  of  breathing,  they  have 
nothing  that  corresponds  to  our  voice,  and  it  may  be 
accepted,  as  Aristotle  expressed  long  ago,  "  that  no 
living  creature  hath  any  voice  but  such  only  as  are 
furnished  with  lungs  and  windpipes."  While  less  famed 
as  instrumentalists  than  the  neighbouring  Saltatoria, 
they  are  not  without  their  resources  in  musical  powers, 
and  there  is  evidence  that  they  are  of  great  importance 
to  the  creatures,  though  it  is  hard  to  state  definitely  in 
what  way.  In  some  of  the  aberrant  forms  of  Acridiidae, 
some  parts  of  the  structures  of  the  body  are  clearly 
subservient  to  the  musical  organs,  and  have  every 
appearance  of  being  specially  directed  to  securing  their 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRIDIIDsE).     89 

efficiency.  The  situation  and  structure  of  these  sound- 
producing  instruments  we  will  pass  over  for  the  present. 
The  stridulation,  or  "  song,"  is  mainly  accomplished 
by  rubbing  together  the  inner  surface  of  the  hind  legs 
and  the  outer  surface  of  the  tegmina  or  wing-covers. 
These  latter  parts  have  considerably  elevated  or  pro- 
jecting veins,  one  of  which  is  slightly  more  thickened, 
and  has  a  sharp  rasp-like  edge  ;  the  inner  face  of  the 
hind  thighs  or  femora  carries  a  series  of  small  bead-like 
prominences  ;  by  scraping  these  upon  the  rasp-like 
surface  of  the  veins  of  the  wings  the  wing  is  thrown 
into  a  state  of  vibration,  and  a  musical,  monotonous,  nearly 
uniform  sound  is  produced.  A  Stenobothrus,  when 
about  to  stridulate,  plants  itself  in  a  nearly  horizontal 
position,  with  the  head  a  little  elevated  ;  the  shanks  of 
the  hind  legs  he  is  apt  to  draw  close  within  a  groove 
beneath  the  thigh,  evidently  made  to  receive  it.  The 
legs  are  now  raised  and  lowered  with  a  more  or  less 
regular  and  continued  motion,  the  thighs  being  grated 
against  the  firm  edge  of  the  tegmina.  The  wings  are 
the  responsive  instrument,  the  viol,  to  which  the  leg 
performs  the  office  of  bow  in  this  musical  performance. 
Every  movement  of  the  fiddle-bow  produces  a  note, 
the  notes  varying  in  rapidity,  number,  and  duration  in 
different  species.  Few  are  aware  that  every  kind  of 
grasshopper  has  its  distinctive  note  ;  a  practised  ear  can 
distinguish  the  song  of  even  closely  allied  species. 


90  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE  INSECTS. 

Scudder,  who  has  given  much  attention  to  the  subject 
of  Orthopteran  music,  says  in  North  America  "  the 
uniformity  with  which  each  species  of  Stenobothrus 
plays  its  own  song  is  quite  remarkable."  One  species, 
S.  curtipennis,  makes  about  six  notes  per  second,  and 
continues  them  for  one  and  a  half  to  two  and  a  half 
seconds ;  another,  ,5*.  melanopleurus,  produces  from  nine 
to  twelve  notes  in  about  three  seconds.  In  both  cases 
the  notes  follow  each  other  uniformly,  and  the  move- 
ments are  less  rapid  in  the  shade  than  in  the  sun. 
Scudder  has  even  reduced  the  notes  of  several  species 
to  a  written  music. 

This  stridulation  of  grasshoppers  is  specially  charac- 
teristic of  the  male.  Yet  it  is  not  always  an  attribute 
with  them  of  the  male  only.  It  was  for  long  supposed 
that  the  males  alone  sang,  that  they  alone  were  endowed 
with  the  musical  apparatus.  Females  were  indeed  per- 
ceived rubbing  their  thighs  and  wing-covers  together, 
but  as  they  appeared  to  be  destitute  of  instruments, 
and  as  no  sound  resulted  from  their  efforts,  it  was  con- 
cluded that  these  were  merely  imitative.  It  is,  however, 
discovered  that  musical  organs  do  exist  in  the  females 
of  various  species  of  Stenobothrus.  Doubtless  they 
are  rudimentary  as  compared  with  those  of  the  males, 
but  they  are  believed  to  be  really  phonetic,  although 
the  appropriate  movement  produces  no  sound  per- 
ceptible to  our  ears. 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRIDHDjE).     91 

The  musical  knobs  of  Acridiidse  would  seem  to  be 
modified  hairs,  and  Graber  mentions  the  finding  in 
females  of  the  stages  intermediate  between  knob  and 
hair.  Much  variety  exists  in  the  structure  of  these 
instruments  in  different  species ;  in  Stenobothrus  lineatus 
raised  folds  replace  the  musical  pegs. 

Some  grasshoppers  stridulate  during  flight,  by  the 
friction  of  the  wings  and  wing-covers.  Whether  this 
has  any  real  importance  remains  almost  unconsidered. 
It  appears  to  be  under  the  control  of  the  insects,  for 
they  often  omit  it  when  alarmed.  Some  species  produce 
a  uniform  noise  during  the  whole  of  their  undeviating 
flight  ;  others  make  it  only  during  the  intervals  of  their 
course,  and  seem  to  stridulate  more  at  will. 


Acridian  Ears. 

If  the  body  of  an  Acridian  insect  be  carefully  examined, 
there  will  be  found  in  the  majority  of  the  species,  on 
each  side  of  the  first  abdominal  segment,  an  organ  which 
there  is  much  reason  for  believing  to  be  of  the  nature  of 
an  ear.  It  is  situated  a  little  over  the  articulation  of  the 
hind  leg,  close  to  the  spot  where  the  sound  is,  as  above 
described,  produced,  and  just  behind  the  first  abdominal 
spiracle.  These  ears  vary  in  form,  but  consist  of  a 
stretched  or  tense  membrane.  The  membrane  may  be 


92  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

level  with  the  skin,  surrounded  by  a  simple  horny  ring  ; 
or   it    may  be    somewhat   depressed,   a   portion   of  the 
segment  projecting  a  little  over  it ;  and  sometimes  it  is 
very  sunken  in  the  abdomen,  the  arched  and  horny  sides 
projecting  over  it  so  much  that  nothing  is  seen  exter- 
nally save  a  sort  of  slit  with  a  cavity  or  pit  beneath  it. 
In  the  last  condition  the  organ   exists    in    the   genera 
Mecostethus  and    Stenobothrus,  which  are  among   our 
native  grasshoppers.     It  is  usually  conceded  that   this 
ear  consists  of  a  tympanum  supplied  internally  with  an 
auditory  nerve   and    a   ganglion,    besides    muscles,  and 
tracheal  apparatus  ;  it  is  undoubtedly  a  sense-organ  of 
an  extremely  delicate  nature.      It  is  found  in  both  sexes, 
as  in  most  of  the  species  of  Acridiidae.     The  forms  in 
which  it  is  absent  are  generally  at  the  same  time  wing- 
less, and  destitute  of  organs  for  producing  special  sound. 
Yet  to  decide  as  to  the  exact  function  of  these  ear- 
like  acoustic  organs  is  a  matter  of  extreme   difficulty. 
We    know,    from  the    fact  that  the    insects    are    easily 
disturbed,   that  the  sense  of  hearing  must  be  delicate, 
and  the  Acridiidse  with  ears  are  believed  to  be  sensitive 
to  sounds  by  means  other  than    these    organs.      This 
suggests  that  the  purpose  of  the  latter  is  the  perception 
of  special  sound.     What  can  this  be  ?     Is  it  the  fiddling 
or  stridulating  sound  which  we  have  seen  they  produce  ? 
Any  insect  having   elaborate    sound-producing   organs 
must    be    supposed    to    have    ears    to    hear    the    sound 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRIDIID/E}.     93 


produced  by  others  of  its  own  species.  No  doubt  the 
effective  sound-producing  instruments  are,  apparently, 
confined  to  the  male,  while  the  ears  exist  in  both  sexes. 
But  this  need  give  rise  to  no  difficulty,  for  it  is  generally 
thought  that  the  female  has  pleasure  in  the  music  of  the 
male.  The  real  obstacle  at  present  to  the  acceptance 
of  these  organs  as  being  special  structures  for  the  per- 
ception of  the  music  of  the  species,  lies  in  the  fact  of  the 
existence  of  the  acoustic  organs  in  species  that  do  not, 


FIG.  20. —  Teratodes  monticollis. 

so   far  as  we   know,  possess  phonetic  organs,   and  are 
incapable  of  stridulation  in  either  sex. 

The  difficulty  at  once  vanishes  should  these  species 
really  produce  some  sound,  though  we  are  ignorant  as  to 
their  doing  so.  It  is  well  known  that  sounds  inaudible 
to  some  human  ears  are  perfectly  audible  to  others. 


94  TRUE   TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

This  Tyndall  has  illustrated  in  his  work  on  Sound. 
"  Crossing  the  Wengern  Alp  with  a  friend,"  he  says, 
"  the  grass  on  each  side  of  the  path  swarmed  with 
insects,  which,  to  me,  rent  the  air  with  their  shrill 
chirruping.  My  friend  heard  nothing  of  this,  the  insect 
world  lying  beyond  his  limit  of  audition."  In  other 
words,  as  Scudder  remarks,  sounds  become  inaudible  to 
many  persons  when  they  are  derived  from  vibrations 
more  rapid  than  25,000  per  second,  and  when  the 
number  becomes  38,000,  the  limit  of  human  perceptibility 
is  reached.  This  difference  in  sensitiveness  to  vibration 
of  human  ears,  renders  it,  of  course,  more  probable  that 
ears  so  unlike  our  own  as  are  those  of  insects  may 
be  capable  of  detecting  sounds  of  a  shrillness  of  which 
the  best  human  ear  can  hear  nothing.  We  may  perhaps 
then  conclude  that  these  Acridiidse  with  ears,  and  to  all 
appearances  dumb,  do  really  produce  sounds,  though 
beyond  our  range  of  perception,  and  do  so  by  some 
method  unknown  to  us.  If  this  be  the  case,  it  is  pro- 
bable that  the  function  of  these  ears  is  the  hearing  of 
particular  sounds. 


Oviposition  ;  and  Philosophy  of  the  Egg-mass. 

The   details    of    the    process    of    oviposition    of    the 
Acridiidse   are   of  much    interest.     The    insect  has    no 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRIDIID&).     95 

elongate  exserted  ovipositor  for  placing  the  eggs  in 
suitable  positions,  but  possesses  instead  four  short  horny 
appendages,  or  gonapophyses,  which,  from  their  peculiar 
structure,  are  admirably  adapted  for  digging.  By  means 
of  these,  when  about  to  lay,  she  excavates  a  hole  in  the 
ground  ;  there  is  no  perforation  of  the  soil,  the  hinder 
part  of  the  body  is  merely  forced  into  it.  With  the 
valves  closed,  she  inserts  the  tips  into  ground,  and  by  a 
series  of  muscular  efforts,  and  the  alternate  opening  and 
shutting  of  the  valves,  in  this  way  it  is  easy  to  press 
the  earth  aside,  and  in  a  few  minutes  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  abdomen  is  buried. 

Along  with  the  eggs  a  quantity  of  viscous  fluid  is  dis- 
charged, that  binds  all  the  eggs  in  a 'mass,  and  when  the 
last  egg  is  laid,  the  viscous  matter  continues  to  be  shed, 
filling  up,  as  with  a  stopper  or  cork,  the  orifice  of  the 
cavity.  The  Rocky  Mountain  Locust  stops  the  neck  of 
its  hole  with  a  compact  and  cellulose  mass  of  the  material, 
which,  though  light  and  easily  penetrated,  is  more  or  less 
impervious  to  water.  The  operation  complete,  but  little 
trace  is  left  of  it ;  most  often  the  frothy  secretion  rises 
above  the  burrow  of  the  Algerian  migratory  locust. 
When  fresh  the  mass  is  soft  and  moist,  but  soon  the  fluid 
deposited  dries,  acquiring  a  firm  consistency,  and  forms 
an  excellent  protection  to  the  eggs,  corresponding  to  the 
more  definite  capsules  of  cursorial  Orthoptera. 

The  insect  in  ovipositing  prefers  a  hard  and  compact 


96  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE  INSECTS. 

soil  to  that  which  is  loose,  and  may  be  observed  at  its 
excavations  even  on  beaten  paths.  The  time  required 
to  accomplish  this  strenuous  task  will  vary  according  to 
the  season  and  temperature.  In  the  event  of  a  frost 
at  night,  and  the  insects  not  rousing  from  their  chilled 
inactivity  till  9  a.m.,  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locusts  have 
been  observed  to  be  scarcely  able  to  make  the  hole  and 
complete  the  pod  during  the  four  or  five  warmer  hours 
of  the  day  ;  but  with  higher  temperature  not  more  than 
about  half  that  time  would  be  needed. 

Their  period  of  ovipositing  extends  over  about  sixty- 
two  days,  the  average  number  of  egg-masses  formed 
being  probably  three  or  four,  and  the  total  number  of 
eggs  deposited  about  a  hundred.  The  French  natural- 
ists recently  record  a  similar  fact  in  Algeria,  and  have 
ascertained  that  Sckistocerca  peregrina,  one  of  the  migra- 
tory locusts,  may  deposit  eggs  at  more  than  one  of  the 
spots  on  which  it  may  alight  during  its  migration. 

A  careful  study  of  the  egg-mass,  or  egg-pod,  of  Calop- 
tenus  spretus  and  other  locusts,  will  reveal  a  quadrilinear 
arrangement  of  the  eggs,  not  only  so  as  to  economize 
space,  but  so  as  to  best  facilitate  the  escape  of  the  young. 
Clearly  if,  from  whatever  cause,  the  upper  eggs  should 
hatch  later  than  the  lower,  or  should  fail  to  hatch — as  is 
not  unfrequently  the  case — the  exit  of  the  young  would 
be  impeded  were  there  no  provision  against  such  a  pos- 
sibility. Without  touching  upon  the  channel  obtained, 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRIDIIDM).     97 

along  which  the  exit  is  easily  made,  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  the  posterior  or  narrow  end  of  the  egg  of  Caloptenus 
spretus  points  downwards  in  the  egg-mass,  so  that  the 
exit  of  the  young  from  the  anterior  end  is  thus  rendered 
easier.  The  quadrilinear  arrangement  of  the  eggs  is 
by  no  means  constant,  even  in  the  same  genus.  But 
even  in  the  pods  of  those  species  of  Caloptenus  which 
have  the  eggs  irregularly  arranged,  the  head  ends 
commonly  point  either  outward  or  inward,  so  that  the 
newly-hatched  creature  may  push  out  at  the  sides  or 
through  a  central  space. 


Egg-Enemies. 

Notwithstanding  the  mother's  care,  fearful  are  the 
odds  against  the  development  of  her  progeny.  Ere  yet 
the  locust  is  born,  from  the  moment  it  starts  life  as  an 
egg,  enemies  stand  in  wait  to  cut  short  its  career.  The 
smaller  of  these  animals,  belonging  principally  to  its  own 
class,  carry  on  this  good  work  most  effectually.  We 
altogether  undervalue  the  usefulness  of  these  tiny  foes  in 
helping  to  keep  the  locust  in  check,  simply  because  they 
are  often  scarcely  perceptible,  and  their  work  too  often 
goes  on  hid  and  unobserved. 

Beetles  of  the  family  Cantharidae  hover  in  the  locali- 
ties where  the  eggs  are  laid  and  insert  their  eggs  in  the 


98  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE  INSECTS. 

egg-masses  of  Acridiidae,  which  may  thus  be  entirely 
destroyed.  In  North  America  the  so-called  Locust  Mite 
proves  a  bitter  enemy  to  the  locust.  In  the  mature  form 
it  lives  in  the  ground,  feeding  upon  all  sorts  of  soft 
animal  and  decomposing  vegetable  matter.  When  the 
grasshopper  fills  the  holes  with  its  eggs,  the  mites  flourish 
thereon,  creeping  into  the  holes  and  eating  the  contents 
voraciously.  A  most  common  and  widespread  egg- 
enemy  is  the  Anthomyia  egg-parasite.  The  Muscinse, 
owing  to  the  rapidity  of  their  successive  generations, 
destroy  large  quantities  of  the  eggs  of  the  migratory 
locust.  The  flies  follow  the  locusts,  and  when  they 
settle  to  lay  eggs,  they  also  alight,  ready  to  bore  their 
way  to  the  eggs,  with  deadly  results.  It  is  said  the 
Dipterous  genus  Idia  is  incapable  of  boring  into  light  and 
sandy  soils,  and  for  this  reason  Acridium  peregrinum 
chooses  them.  Two-winged  flies  of  the  family  Bomby- 
liidae  are  also  parasitic  in  these  eggs.  Ktinckel  d'Her- 
culais  has  studied  the  Bombylid  larvse  found  in  the  ova 
of  the  devastating  locust  Stauronotus  maroccanus.  The 
larva  issues  from  the  egg  in  August,  reaches  the  limit  of 
its  growth  in  October,  and  passing  the  winter  within  the 
egg-case,  is  hatched  the  following  summer. 

To  this  work  of  egg-destruction  by  insect  enemies  and 
parasites,  must  be  added  the  good  offices  of  various  birds, 
and  of  some  mammals.  Hogs  are  quite  fond  of  locust 
eggs,  and  soon  learn  to  search  them  out. 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRW11D.E}.     99 


Of  the  Escape  of  the   Young  from  the  Egg. 

It  is  usual  for  all  the  young  in  a  given  mass  to  burst 
from  the  egg  very  nearly  at  one  and  the  same  time,  and 
in  that  event  the  lowermost  individuals  await  the  escape 
of  those  in  front,  which  first  push  out  through  the  neck 
of  their  earthy  dwelling.  One  after  the  other,  through 
one  small  hole,  they  all  escape  into  the  light  of  day.  The 
actual  method  of  hatching  of  Stauronotas  maroccanus,  as 
described  by  Ktinckel  d'Herculais,  is  most  interesting. 
According  to  him,  an  ampulla  plays  the  principal  part  in 
the  process.  To  escape  from  the  capsule,  the  young 
Stauronotus  puts  into  action  an  ampulla  formed  by  the 
cutaneous  membrane  between  the  head  and  the  pro- 
thorax.  This  ampulla  is  the  more  effective  in  being 
dilated  by  fluid  from  the  body  cavity,  and  is  maintained 
in  the  swollen  condition  by  the  insect  accumulating  air 
in  the  crop. 

Each  capsule  is  closed  with  a  well-fitting  cover,  and 
to  detach  it,  six  or  seven  of  the  young  ones  inside  unite 
their  efforts  to  push  it  off  by  help  of  their  ampullae. 
Nature  has  supplied  these  young  ones  with  tools  :  sharp 
mandibles,  powerful  legs,  furnished  with  spines  and 
claws ;  but  these  seem  not  yet  at  their  service,  for  a 
reason  to  be  presently  discovered. 

We  have  by  no  means  exhausted  the  important  and 


ioo  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE  INSECTS. 

multifarious  functions  of  this  apparatus,  the  ampulla. 
It  subsequently  serves  as  a  sort  of  reservoir,  by  aid  of 
which  the  insect  can  diminish  the  bulk  of  other  parts  of 
the  body,  and  thus  after  emergence  from  the  capsule, 
penetrate  the  narrowest  cracks  in  the  soil,  so  as  to  reach 
the  surface.  As  soon  as  it  is  there  the  young  Stauro- 
notus  moults ;  the  ampulla  enables  it  to  burst  and  to  get 
rid  of  the  skin  in  which  it  is  enveloped.  Freed  of  this 
pellicle,  the  young,  no  longer  swaddled,  can  now  make 
use  of  their  limbs  for  walking  and  leaping,  and  have 
free  use  of  their  antennae  and  buccal  parts.  At  every 
moult  the  cervical  ampulla  reappears,  and  plays  the 
leading  role  at  these  crises  assigned  to  it. 

But  in  the  process  of  hatching  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
Locust,  Riley  speaks  of  the  feet  as  playing  the  principal 
part.  By  a  continued  series  of  undulating  movements, 
and  by  the  action  of  the  sharp  tip  of  the  hind  tibial 
spines,  as  also  of  the  tarsal  claws  of  all  the  legs,  he  finds 
the  egg-shell  is  ruptured,  and  the  nascent  larva  soon 
succeeds  in  working  free  therefrom  and  making  its  way 
to  the  light.  Once  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  it  rests 
for  a  moment,  almost  motionless.  It  is  soft  and  limp,  its 
members  are  still  directed  backward,  and  it  is  yet  fettered 
in  the  very  delicate  film  or  pellicle,  which  must  be  cast 
before  the  newly-emerged  creature  can  move  with  free- 
dom. The  skin  begins  to  split,  and  in  from  one  to  five 
minutes  from  the  time  the  insect  arrives  above  ground, 


LOCUSTS  AND  GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRIDIIDM).     101 

the  process  of  extrication  is  complete.  Pale  and  colour- 
less when  first  having  drawn  itself  out  of  this  skin,  the 
full-born  larva  is  nevertheless  at  once  capable  of  walking 
firmly  on  its  legs,  and  even  hops  with  agility,  and  an 
hour  seldom  elapses  after  the  moult  takes  place  ere  its 
natural  dark  grey  colouring  is  acquired. 

However  thin  and  delicate  this  pellicle  discarded  by 
the  little  animal  on  issuing  from  the  egg  may  be,  it 
doubtless  affords  much  protection  in  the  struggles  of 
birth,  and  Riley  points  out  the  interesting  fact  that  while, 
as  we  have  just  seen,  it  is  shed  within  a  very  few  minutes 
of  the  time  when  the  animal  reaches  the  free  air,  it  is 
rarely  shed  if,  from  some  cause  or  other,  there  is  failure 
to  get  out  of  the  soil,  even  though  the  young  may  be 
striving  for  days  to  effect  an  escape. 


Post -embryonic  Development. 

Let  us  trace  a  migratory  locust,  Schistocerca  peregrina, 
through  its  post-embryonic  development ;  following 
Brongniart.  Immediately  on  leaving  the  egg  the  young 
locust  changes  its  skin,  and  is  then  of  a  green  colour, 
but  quickly  becomes  brown,  and  in  twelve  hours  is 
black.  Already  at  this  early  age  the  gregarious  habit 
proclaims  itself.  In  six  days  the  individual  experiences 
a  second  moult,  after  which  it  is  black,  mixed  with 


102  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 

white,  and  with  a  rosy  streak  on  each  side  of  the  hind 
body.  Generally  six  or  eight  days  later  the  third 
ecdysis  takes  place  ;  the  general  tint  being  the  same, 
but  the  rose  colour  becomes  more  distinct.  After  eight 
days  the  fourth  moult  occurs ;  when  the  creature  should 
be  considered  no  longer  a  larva,  but  a  nymph,  for  it 
has  the  first  rudiments  of  wings  ;  the  position  of  the 
markings  is  the  same,  but  the  rose  colour  is  altered  to 
a  citron  yellow,  and  the  line  of  the  spiracles  is  marked 
with  white.  In  ten  days  another  moult  is  undergone, 
there  is  considerable  increase  in  size,  the  yellow  is 
brighter,  and  the  prothorax  more  definitely  speckled 
with  white.  In  fifteen  or  twenty  days  the  sixth  ecdysis 
occurs,  and  the  locust  enters  the  perfect  state.  The 
large  tegmina  now  present  are  marked  with  black,  and 
the  surface  generally  is  rosy  and  bluish.  Such  is  the 
colour  in  Algeria ;  yet  sometimes  the  insects  arrive  from 
the  South  in  the  French  colony  reddish  or  yellowish 
in  colour,  those  of  the  latter  tint  being,  it  is  believed, 
older  specimens  of  the  red  kind.  We  may  recall  an 
analogous  series  of  colour-changes  in  the  course  of  the 
individual  development  of  some  Phasmidae — of  the 
Phyllium  group. 

The  fact  of  these  changes  of  colour  in  Orthoptera 
during  metamorphoses,  and  even  after  they  have 
become  adult,  is  important,  not  only  from  a  physiological 
point  of  view,  but  as  helping  towards  the  determination 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRIDIID&).     103 

of  the  number  of  species  and  the  geographical  dis- 
tribution of  the  migratory  locusts. 

On  an  average,  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locust  requires 
about  seven  weeks,  from  the  time  of  hatching,  to  pass 
through  its  stages  of  growth  ;  and  the  perfect  form  is 
attained  through  a  series  of  five  moults. 

Apart  from  the  colorational,  and  more  minute 
structural  changes  which  take  place  with  each  moult, 
the  most  striking  change  in  the  course  of  development 
is  the  growth  of  the  wings.  We  examine  the  first  instar 
of  Caloptenus  spretus,  the  young  locust  just  emerged 
from  the  egg  and  colourless.  In  the  second  instar  the 
chief  difference  is  the  development  of  colour ;  in  the 
third  there  is  plainly  a  slight  development  of  the  future 
organs  of  flight.  After  the  third  moult  there  is  a  great 
change  ;  the  instar  then  .disclosed  —  the  fourth — has 
undergone  a  considerable  change  in  the  wing-rudiments 
or  wing-pads,  which  have  become  free  and  detached,  the 
second  pair  being  the  larger,  and  outside  the  other  pair. 
The  fifth  instar  differs  little,  except  in  the  increased 
size  of  the  wing-pads.  At  the  fifth  and  last  moult  the 
instar  is  the  perfect  insect,  with  full  free  wings,  the 
thorax  flattened,  the  colour  different.  The  most  pro- 
nounced changes,  it  will  be  observed,  occurred  at  the 
third  and  fifth  skin-sheddings,  after  each  of  which  con- 
siderable difference  in  the  form  of  the  insect  was 
presented. 


ro4  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE   INSECTS. 

Before  each  ecdysis  the  locust  stops  feeding  for  a 
while  and  remains  motionless.  The  first  three  or  larval 
skins  are  almost  invariably  shed  on  or  near  the  ground, 
the  young  crowding  together  in  some  sheltered  nook  ; 
for  the  last  two  or  pupal  moults  they  seem  to  prefer  to 
fasten  to  some  elevated  object.  Immediately  after  the 
operation  the  body  is  soft  and  colourless,  as  it  was  on 
leaving  the  egg. 

Obviously  these  moults  are  most  critical  periods,  and 
the  last  moult — from  pupa  to  the  winged — is  the  most 
critical,  the  most  difficult  of  all.  Clutching  a  grass-stem, 
or  whatever  be  the  chosen  object,  securely  with  its  hind 
feet,  which  are  drawn  up  under  the  body  ;  the  head 
downwards,  if  in  the  favourite  position  ;  motionless,  with 
antennae  drawn  down  over  the  face,  the  whole  attitude 
betokening  helplessness, — thus  the  pupa  awaits  the 
swelling,  and  the  ultimate  splitting  of  the  skin,  when 
the  struggle  ensues  to  find  release.  Having  succeeded 
at  last  in  drawing  itself  out  of  its  old  "  misfit,"  it,  with 
unsteady  gait,  turns  round  and  clambers  up  the  side  of 
the  shrunken  cast-off  coat,  and  there  rests  while  the 
body  hardens,  the  crooked  limbs  straighten,  and  the 
wings  dry,  unfold,  and  expand,  like  the  petals  of  some 
opening  flower.  The  pale  colours  appertaining  to 
moulting  gradually  give  way  to  the  natural  tints,  and 
a  fresh  bright  locust  eventually  starts  on  a  new  career. 
Ravenous  from  long  fast,  by-and-by  it  joins  its  voracious 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS  (ACR1DIID&}.     105 

comrades,  and  makes  initial  essay  of  its  new  jaws. 
During  the  helplessness  that  belongs  to  these  crises, 
the  unfortunate  creature  falls  a  victim  to  many  enemies 
which  otherwise  would  not  molest  it,  and  not  unfrequently 
to  the  voracity  of  the  more  active  individuals  of  its 
own  kind. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

LOCUSTS    AND    GRASSHOPPERS    (ACIU 

Locusts. 

ONLY  a  few  of  the  various  kinds  of  grasshoppers 
belonging  to  this  family  Acridiidse — of  which  nearly  two 
thousand  species  are  known — can  be  correctly  denomi- 
nated locusts.  A  locust  is  a  species  of  grasshopper  that 
occasionally  becomes  very  destructive,  and  that  moves 
about  in  swarms  to  seek  fresh  food.  Some  Acridiidse 
greatly  increase  in  numbers  locally,  and  become  very 
destructive — very  often  for  one  or  two  seasons  only — 
and  still  more  rarely  migrate  from  place  to  place,  and 
are  then  called  locusts.  The  true  migratory  locusts  are 
species  that  have  the  migratory  instinct  or  disposition 
strongly  developed,  and  that  move  over  considerable 
distances  in  swarms,  and  inflict  serious  injuries.  Of 
these  there  are  but  few  species — less  than  a  dozen,  in 
fact — although  we  hear  of  their  swarms  in  many  parts 
of  the  world. 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRIDIIDJE).     107 


Perhaps  the  most  important  and  widely  distributed 
of  them  is  Pachytyhts  cinerascens,  which  has  extended 
its  invasions  over  a  great  part 
of  the  Eastern  hemisphere,  from 
China  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It 
exists  in  many  places  in  the  Orient 
and  the  Asiatic  Archipelago,  and 
even  in  New  Zealand,  and  is  the 
commoner  European  migratory 
locust ;  its  congener,  P.  migra- 
torius,  being  much  more  restricted 
in  distribution.  P.  (cedaleus)  mar- 
moratus  has  almost  as  wide  a  dis- 
tribution in  the  Eastern  hemisphere 
as  P.  cinerascens,  but  is  more 
exclusively  tropical.  These  locusts 
belong  to  the  Oedipodides.  This 
tribe  does  not  include  all  the 
species  of  migratory  locusts  of  the 
Old  World  ;  Schistocerca  peregrina  belongs  to  the  tribe 
Acridiides.  This  handsome  locust  has  a  wide  distribution. 
It  is  the  chief  species  in  North  Africa,  as  in  North-west 
India,  and  is  probably  the  locust  in  Exodus.  With  this 
sole  exception,  the  species  of  the  genus  Schistocerca 
are  confined  to  the  New  World.  Schistocerca  americana 
is  migratory  to  a  small  extent  in  the  United  States ; 
and  other  species  are  migratory  in  South  America.  The 


FIG.  21. — Proscopia  iii 
which  bears  a  great  general 
resemblance  lo  a  Stick 
Insect. 


io8  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 

genus  Caloptenus  also  belongs  to  Acridiides.  Several 
species  of  this  genus  are  injurious  in  North  America, 
but  the  migratory  habit  and  great  destructive  power 
belong  essentially  to  the  Rocky  Mountain  Locust,  the  too 
famous  Caloptenus  spretus.  While  none  other  compares 
with  it  there  in  the  vastness  of  its  movements,  or  the 
injury  which  it  inflicts,  it,  nevertheless,  is  a  comparatively 
small,  inconspicuous  species,  its  slender  brownish  body 
seldom  exceeding  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in  length.  We 
ascertain  plainly  from  the  above  facts  that  the  migratory 
species  of  Acridiidse  are  not  limited  to  any  one  genus  or 
group  of  the  family  ;  and  it  is  evident,  therefore,  we  must 
look  to  something  else  than  such  anatomical  character- 
istics or  differences  as  distinguish  the  groups  for  the 
cause  of  the  migratory  instinct. 

We  should  bear  in  mind  this  equally  well  established 
fact  that  locusts  of  the  migratory  species  exist  in  countries 
without  giving  rise  to  swarms,  or  causing  serious  injuries; 
thus  P.  cinerascens  is  always  present  in  different  localities 
in  Belgium,  and  does  not  give  rise  to  swarms. 

Occasionally  individuals  of  these  migratory  species 
penetrate  to  our  shores.  In  1869  specimens  of  Schisto- 
cerca  peregrina  occurred  in  various  parts  of  the  country, 
having  in  all  probability  arrived  by  crossing  the  German 
Ocean,  and  P.  cinerascens  and  P.  migratorius  have  been 
met  with  ;  but  Britain  is  now  exempt  from  the  ravages 
of  locusts. 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRIDIID^E}.     109 


Migration  of  Locusts. 

Insignificant  individually,  but  mighty  collectively,  the 
migratory  locusts  fall  upon  a  country  liable  to  their 
visitations  like  a  blight,  for  they  appear  suddenly  on 
a  spot  in  huge  swarms,  which,  in  the  space  of  a  few 
hours,  clear  off  all  the  vegetation  that  can  be  eaten, 
leaving  brown  and  bare  that  which  all  was  green  and 
flourishing.  It  is  difficult  for  those  who  have  not 
witnessed  a  serious  invasion  to  fully  conceive,  or 
appreciate  it.  So  great  the  proportions  of  the  scourge, 
so  vast  their  multitudes,  their  flight  may  be  likened  to 
a  vast  body  of  fleecy  clouds,  or,  still  more  correctly,  to 
an  immense  snowstorm,  often  extending  from  near  the 
ground  to  a  height  that  baffles  the  keenest  eye  to 
distinguish  the  insects  in  the  upper  stratum.  It  is  a 
vast  mass  of  animated  specks  glittering  against  the  sun. 
On  the  horizon,  they  often  appear  as  a  heavy  black 
cloud.  So  densely  packed  the  brood,  they  occasionally 
even  darken  the  air,  intercepting  the  sun's  rays  for 
hours,  and  casting  a  checkered  shade  over  the  earth. 
Carruthers,  in  Nature,  estimates  a  great  flight  of  locusts 
that  passed  over  the  s.s.  Golconda,  when  off  the  Great 
Hanish  Islands  in  the  Red  Sea,  in  November  1889,  at 
over  two  thousand  square  miles  in  extent ;  the  number 
of  insects  he  calculates  to  have  been  24,420  billions  ; 


no        TRUE  TALES  OF  THE  INSECTS. 

and  the  weight  of  the  mass  42,580  millions  of  tons,  each 
locust  weighing  one-sixteenth  of  an  ounce  ;  and  the  ship 
of  six  thousand  tons  burden,  he  adds,  must  have  made 
seven  million  voyages  to  carry  this  great  host,  even  if 
packed  together  1 1 1  times  more  closely  than  they  were 
flying.  Another,  apparently  a  stronger,  flight  was  seen 
going  in  the  same  direction  next  day.  Other  testimony 
goes  to  prove  that  such  an  estimate  may  be  no 
exaggeration.  According  to  official  accounts  of  locusts 
in  Cyprus,  no  fewer  than  1600  million  egg-cases  were 
collected  and  made  away  with  in  1881,  up  to  the  end  of 
October  ;  and  by  the  end  of  the  season  the  weight  of 
the  eggs  collected  and  destroyed  amounted  to  over 
1 300  tons. 

From  one  part  of  the  country  to  another  the  great 
hordes  sweep,  in  search  of  pastures  new,  and  leave 
ruin  and  devastation  in  their  wake.  The  earth  is 
entirely  deprived  of  her  green 'mantle,  no  green  thing 
is  left  for  beast  or  man.  Famine  is  only  a  too  probable 
consequence,  and  pestilence  may  follow  from  the  decom- 
position of  the  bodies  of  the  dead  insects.  The  latter 
result  is  said  on  some  occasions  to  have  occurred  from 
swarms  falling  into  the  sea,  and  being  drowned,  and 
being  afterwards  thrown  upon  the  shore  by  the  waves. 
Sometimes  bodies  of  young  locusts  plunge  into  a  stream 
and  are  entrapped  there,  the  whole  swarrn  being 
swamped  in  the  river,  there  being  no  current  to  carry 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRIDIID.E).     in 

them  away,  and  lie  rotting  in  one  huge  mass  for  days. 
Fish  die  from  the  poisonous  effects,  and  float  on  the 
surface,  adding  to  the  already  existing  mortality,  and 
so  powerful  the  effluvia  produced,  no  one  dare  venture 
near  to  gaze  on  the  scene  of  desolation. 

Locust  swarms  do  not  visit  the  places  that  are  subject 
to  their  visitations  every  year,  but,  as  a  rule,  only  after 
intervals  of  a  considerable  number  of  years.  It  has 
been  satisfactorily  ascertained  that  both  in  Algeria  and 
North  America,  the  noted  locust  years  occur  usually 
only  at  considerable  intervals.  There  is,  however,  no 
certainty  in  the  migrations,  no  law  of  periodicity 
governing  destructive  flights,  these  only  occurring  at 
irregular  intervals.  Nevertheless,  it  may  be  pointed 
out,  the  history  of  the  most  noted  locust  years,  both 
in  North  America  and  in  Europe,  shows  a  tendency 
to  their  recurrence  about  every  eleven  years.  From 
the  respective  areas  of  their  most  abundant  develop- 
ment, the  European  and  Asiatic,  the  African,  and  the 
American  species  swarm  in  exceptional  years,  to  ravage 
adjacent  regions  in  which  they  are  not  found  per- 
manently. 

These  interims  between  migrations  seem  at  first 
unexplainable,  for  it  would  be  supposed  that  as  locusts 
are  capable  of  excessive  increase,  when  once  they  were 
established  in  any  spot  in  large  numbers,  there  would  be 
a  constant  development  of  superfluous  individuals  which 


ii2  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 

would  have  to  migrate  regularly,  in  order  to  procure  food. 
The  irregularity  seems  to  depend  on  three  things  :  that 
the  multiplication  of  locusts  is  kept  in  check  by  parasitic 
insects  ;  that  their  eggs — which  were  supposed  to  be 
comparatively  easily  affected  by  climatic  influences — may 
lie  hidden  in  the  soil  for  years  and  yet  hatch  out  in  a 
favourable  season ;  and  that  the  disposition  to  migrate 
— though  some  locusts  appear  essentially  migratory — is 
only  effective  when  immense  numbers  of  individuals 
are  produced. 

Every  animal  necessarily  meets  with  checks  of  one 
kind  or  another  to  its  undue  multiplication,  and  the 
balance  of  power  does  not  always  lean  to  the  side  of 
the  enemies  of  the  locusts.  During  a  year  when  the 
locusts  are  not  numerous  the  abundance  of  the  parasites 
may  decline,  and  the  bird  destroyers  of  the  locusts  may 
greatly  fall  off  in  numbers ;  so  that  the  locusts  get  on 
the  rising  side  of  the  scale,  as  it  were,  and  for  a  time 
may  increase  rapidly,  while  the  enemies  are  much 
inferior  to  them  in  numbers.  If  there  should  come  a 
year  when  very  few  of  the  locusts  hatch,  then  the  next 
year  the  parasites  will  be  greatly  reduced,  and  if  then 
large  numbers  of  locusts  from  eggs  that  have  been  in 
abeyance  should  hatch  out,  the  parasites  will  not  be 
present  in  sufficient  numbers  to  keep  them  in  check ; 
and  by  the  following  year  the  increase  in  number  of 
the  locusts  may  be  such  as  to  give  rise  to  a  swarm. 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRIDIIDM}.     113 


There  are  Many  Causes  of  Migration. 

The  explanation  of  migration  to  be  gathered  from 
the  preceding  remarks,  is  excessive  multiplication.  As 
a  single  explanation  of  the  phenomenon  no  better  can 
be  offered ;  for  this  is  evidently  the  immediate  or 
special  cause,  and  the  others  are  mostly  secondary, 
or  but  consequences  of  this  one ;  for  these  move- 
ments cannot  truly  be  ascribed  to  any  single  cause. 
Moreover,  we  come  to  recognize  the  fact  that  the 
several  influences  bearing  on  migration  fall  into  two 
distinct  categories,  viz.  immediate  or  special,  and  remote 
or  general.  That  certain  climatic  conditions,  those  of 
heat  and  more  than  ordinary  dryness,  are  in  some  way 
necessary,  or  most  favourable  to  the  excessive  increase, 
and  the  origin  of  the  migratory  habit  or  instinct,  may 
be  maintained.  Wherever  locusts  are  largely  and 
frequently  developed,  whether  in  the  Eastern  or  Western 
Continent,  we  find  either  extensive  deserts  or  vast 
treeless  areas,  and  a  climate  arid  or  dry.  These  con- 
ditions are  believed  to  develop  irritating  or  uneasy 
sensations,  which  cause  migration.  But,  plainly,  there 
are  other  exciting  causes  than  the  impulse  simply  to  fly. 
The  immediate  cause,  increase,  has  been  already  con- 
sidered. Annoyance  from  natural  enemies  probably  often 
proves  a  valid  cause,  as  no  one  who  has  witnessed  the 


ii4  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE  INSECTS. 

excessive  abundance  in  which  some  of  these  at  times 
prevail  will  deny.  Tachina-  flies  especially,  will  follow 
the  locusts  in  dense  crowds,  so  thick  that  not  one  can 
rise  from  the  ground  without  being  pursued  by  several  ; 
and  there  is  no  escape  from  persecution  till  the  victim 
rises  high  in  the  air. 

When  food  is  lacking,  whether  through  excessive 
multiplication  of  species,  or  through  the  droughts  that 
are  not  uncommon  in  the  locusts'  native  habitat,  there 
must  needs  be  the  strongest  incentive  to  change  of 
place.  Such  is  the  case,  under  the  same  circumstances, 
with  other  animals  normally  non-migratory.  That 
hunger  will  cause  locusts  to  move  from  place  to  place 
in  search  of  food  is  undoubtedly  true,  yet  it  would  be 
a  violent  presumption  to  say  that  a  swarm  starts  on 
the  lengthy  journey  that  they  often  undertake,  in  search 
of  food.  There  seems  thus  still  another  factor  in  the 
problem,  viz.  instinctive  impulse.  It  is  more  than 
probable  there  is  a  certain  instinctive  prompting  to  that 
which  is  best  for  the  preservation  of  the  species.  Fresh 
breeding-grounds,  away  from  the  location  of  birth,  seem 
desired.  The  evident  disposition  often  manifested  to 
go  in  a  given  direction  in  spite  of  contrary  winds,  or 
other  potent  obstacles,  is  not,  to  the  same  extent,  sus- 
ceptible of  any  other  explanation.  We  have  likewise 
to  deal  with  that  most  remarkable  fact,  the  return 
migration  of  locusts  bred  in  the  Temporary  region  to 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRIDIID^.     115 

the  land  of  their  ancestors.  Hunger  or  excessive 
multiplication,  however  important  as  causes  of  the 
migration  from  the  Permanent  breeding-grounds,  seem 
to  have  little  to  do  with  this  return  migration,  because 
the  insects  all  depart,  whether  few  or  many,  and  they 
pass  over  great  stretches  of  luxuriant  vegetation.  Pre- 
vailing winds  do  not  govern  them,  dangerous  obstacles 
do  not  stay  them.  The  uncongenial  climate  of  the 
Temporary  region  doubtless  prompts  them  to  get  back 
to  their  more  congenial  native  home,  and  we  must 
allow  a  certain  amount  of  instinctive  guidance  akin  to 
that  possessed  by  migratory  birds. 


Remarkable  Manifestations  of  Instinct  attend  Migration. 

The  manifestations  of  instinct  that  attend  migration 
are  indeed  remarkable.  It  is  believed  that  when  the 
locusts  migrate,  they  do  so  in  the  direction  taken  by 
their  predecessors,  although  several  generations  may 
elapse  without  a  migration.  Their  flight  is  to  a  large 
extent  dependent  on  the  wind,  and  it  is  said  when  the 
air  is  calm  and  warm,  and  they  are  ready  to  move,  they 
have  the  habit  of  making  short  flights,  circling  upward, 
apparently  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  condition 
or  direction  of  the  upper  currents,  if  they  are  favourable 
to  bear  them  away.  They  support  themselves  on  the 


n6  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

wing  probably  with  little  muscular  effort.  Their  body, 
we  have  seen,  contains  elastic  air-sacs  in  connection 
with  the  tracheae,  which,  constantly  filled  and  refilled, 
float  them  up  in  the  air,  and  at  the  time  of  flight,  it  may 
be  presumed,  the  internal  balloons  have  room  for  perfect 
expansion,  as  previously  explained.  Thus  the  insects 
spend  but  little  muscular  force  in  their  aerial  movements, 
and,  instead  of  really  flying  as  does  a  bird,  are  borne 
along  chiefly  by  the  wind.  Suppose  a  swarm  has  risen 
from  the  ground  on  a  clear  sunny  morning,  and  is  being 
wafted  straight  on  their  course  by  favouring  winds. 
Opposing  winds  suddenly  prevent  them  from  moving 
on  in  the  direction  they  desire  to  go.  Instantly  they 
drop,  and  wait  for  a  change.  With  a  return  of  the 
wind  to  its  original  quarter,  if  during  the  warm  part 
of  the  day,  often,  with  wonderful  unanimity,  all 
again  take  wing,  and  fly  off  towards  their  intended 
destination. 

An  apparently  inexplicable  point  in  the  natural  history 
of  the  migratory  locusts  is  their  disappearance  from  a 
spot  they  have  invaded.  A  swarm  will  arrive  in  a 
locality,  deposit  there  a  number  of  eggs,  and  then  pass 
on.  But  after  a  season  or  two  there  will  be  few,  or 
none  of  the  species  in  the  spot  invaded.  This  appears 
to  be  partly  owing  to  the  want  of  food,  and  consequent 
mortality  among  the  young  after  hatching  ;  but  in  other 
cases  they  in  turn  migrate  after  growth — they  disappear 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRIDIID^).     117 

on  those  odd  return  travels  towards  lands  from  which 
their  progenitors  came. 


"  Voejgangcrs i"    Interesting  Points  in  their 
Natural  History. 

In  South  Africa  it  would  seem  that  the  movements  of 
the  migratory  locusts  frequently  take  place  before  the 
insects  have  acquired  their  wings.  Mrs.  Barber,  in  an 
account  of  "  Locusts  and  Locust-birds,"  mentions  this 
among  many  interesting  traits  of  the  South  African 
species.  These  locusts  manifest  the  gregarious  dis- 
position at  a  very  early  age,  for  the  small  family  parties 
in  which  they  at  first  appear,  sunning  themselves  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  holes  whence  they  have  escaped 
from  the  ova,  rapidly  amalgamate,  so  that  enormous 
numbers  come  together.  Roosting  in  company  upon 
shrubs  and  grasses,  they  denude  the  neighbourhood  of 
its  foliage.  Their  name,  "  Voetgangers  " — given  by  the 
early  Dutch  settlers,  and  retained  ever  since— denotes 
their  habit  of  travelling  in  flocks  on  foot.  No  sooner 
have  they  made  their  appearance  from  the  earth,  and 
have  obtained  a  slight  degree  of  strength,  than  they  will 
at  once  take  up  a  northern  course,  always  towards  lands 
in  the  interior  of  the  continent  from  which  their  pro- 
genitors departed.  Farmers  and  agriculturists  adopt 


u8  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE   INSECTS. 

methods  all  but  in  vain  to  save  their  crops  and  pasture- 
lands  on  their  approach  in  countless  multitudes,  when 
swarm  after  swarm  has  to  be  contended  with.  They 
then  fill  up  the  whole  country  ;  their  numbers  are  over- 
whelming, and  cannot  be  driven  away.  They  take 
advantage  of  paths  and  roads,  and  many  miles  will  be 
traversed  in  a  day ;  they  proceed  by  means  of  short 
quick  leaps  or  hoppings  rapidly  repeated.  Nothing  can 
stay  the  "  Voetgangers' "  progress  northward.  Occa- 
sionally they  march  through  towns  and  villages,  and 
have  been  seen  attempting  to  scale  a  stone  wall,  rather 
than  be  thwarted  in  their  advance.  Mountain  ranges, 
forests,  rivers,  may  intervene,  diverting  them  for  a  while 
from  their  course  ;  nevertheless,  they  ultimately  succeed 
in  continuing  their  journey  to  the  interior. 

The  manner  in  which  these  wingless  locusts  occasion- 
ally cross  broad  rivers  is  surprising,  and  has  some 
bearing  on  the  vexed  question  of  the  possibility  of 
winged  locusts  crossing  the  ocean.  Mrs.  Barber  refers 
to  an  instance  on  the  Vaal  River  in  the  spring  of  1871, 
shortly  after  the  discovery  of  the  Diamond-fields.  The 
country  at  the  time  was  swarming  with  "  Voetgangers  ; " 
every  blade  of  grass  was  cleared  off  by  them.  One 
day  a  vast  swarm  appeared  on  the  banks  of  the  river, 
evidently  in  search  of  a  spot  for  crossing,  which  they 
could  not  find,  as  the  river  was  slightly  flooded.  For 
several  days  the  locusts  travelled  up  the  stream  ;  in  the 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRIDJID^).     121 

course  of  doing  this  they  paused  for  some  time  at  a 
sudden  bend  in  the  river  where  a  number  of  rocks  were 
cropping-  out,  as  if  uncertain  whether  to  risk  a  passage 
at  this  place.  However,  they  at  length  passed  on,  as 
if  with  the  hope  of  finding  a  better  ford  ;  in  which 
apparently  they  were  disappointed,  for  three  days  later 
they  returned  to  the  same  bend,  and  there  plunged  in 
vast  multitudes  into  the  stream,  where,  assisted  by  a 
favourable  current  and  the  water-plants  which  grew 
upon  the  projecting  rocks,  they  succeeded  in  effecting 
a  crossing,  though  great  numbers  were  drowned  and 
carried  away  by  the  flooded  river  ;  but  these  casualties 
do  not  count  when  myriads  are  advancing. 

Mrs.  Barber  adds  that  "  Voetgangers "  have  been 
known  to  attempt  the  passage  of  the  Orange  River 
when  it  was  several  hundred  yards  in  breadth,  pouring 
their  vast  swarms  into  the  flooded  stream  regardless  of 
the  consequences,  until  they  became  heaped  up  upon 
each  other  in  large  bodies.  As  the  living  mass  in  the 
water  accumulated,  some  pieces  of  it  were  swept  away 
by  the  strong  current  from  the  bank  to  which  they  were 
clinging,  and  as  the  individuals  tightly  grasped  each 
other  and  held  together,  they  became  floating  islands, 
the  locusts  continually  hopping  and  creeping  over  each 
other  as  they  drifted  away.  Whether  any  of  the  locust- 
islands  chanced  to  reach  the  opposite  bank  is  unknown  ; 
probably  some  of  them  were  drifted  on  land  again. 


J22  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE  INSECTS. 

They  are  by  no  means  rapid  swimmers  ;  but  do  not 
easily  drown,  their  habit  of  continually  changing  places 
and  hopping  and  creeping  round  and  round  upon  each 
other  being  most  advantageous  as  a  means  of  preserva- 
tion. It  is  a  common  practice  for  these  young  locusts 
to  form  a  bridge  over  a  moderately  broad  stream  by 
plunging  indiscriminately  into  it  and  holding  on  to 
each  other,  grappling  like  drowning  men  at  sticks  or 
straws,  or,  indeed,  anything  that  comes  within  their 
reach,  that  will  assist  in  floating  them  ;  meanwhile 
those  from  behind  are  eagerly  pushing  forward  over  the 
bodies  of  those  that  are  already  in  the  stream  and  hurry- 
ing on  to  the  front,  until  at  length  by  this  process  the 
opposite  bank  of  the  river  is  reached  ;  so  that  a  floating 
mass  of  living  locusts  is  stretched  across  the  stream, 
forming  a  bridge  over  which  the  whole  swarm  passes. 
In  this  ingenious  fashion  few,  comparatively  speaking, 
are  drowned,  because  the  same  individuals  do  not  remain 
in  the  stream  during  the  whole  of  the  time  occupied  by 
the  swarm  in  crossing,  the  insects  continually  changing 
places  with  each  other;  those  that  are  beneath  are 
striving  to  reach  the  surface  by  climbing  over  others, 
whilst  those  above  them  are,  in  their  turn,  being  forced 
below.  Locusts  are  exceedingly  tenacious  of  life,  re- 
maining under  water  for  a  length  of  time  without  injury. 
An  apparently  drowned  locust  will  revive  if  exposed  to 
the  warm  rays  of  the  sun,  should  it  by  chance  reach  the 
bank  or  be  cast  ashore. 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRIDIID^E}.     123 

As  a  rule,  the  individuals  who  first  acquire  wings  do 
not  leave  the  general  swarm,  but  remain  with  it  until 
they  all  are  mature,  when  the  whole  body  will  take  wing 
together.  In  cases,  however,  where  great  swarms  of 
different  ages  are  mixed,  the  adults  will  suddenly  arise 
and  be  off,  northward,  leaving  their  companions,  the 
"  Voetgangers,"  to  trudge  along  behind  until  such  time 
as  they  can  follow. 

By  the  middle  of  summer  usually,  the  young  have 
their  wings,  when  they  invariably  all  take  flight  and 
speedily  disappear,  travelling  north,  not  a  single  specimen 
remaining  behind  in  the  Colony. 


Distance   to   which    Swarms   may   Migrate. 

In  the  Old  World  the  migratory  locust  is  known 
to  travel  a  distance  of  four  hundred  or  five  hundred 
miles  into  Central  Europe  from  its  permanent  breeding- 
area  in  Asia  ;  in  North  America  the  distance  to  which 
swarms  may  migrate  in  the  course  of  a  season  may 
extend  over  a  thousand  miles. 

The  space  over  which  a  single  flight  may  extend  is 
not  definitely  known,  but  that  it  is  considerable  is  certain. 
As  the  locusts  rely  chiefly  upon  the  wind  to  bear  them 
along,  it  depends  upon  the  rate  at  which  the  wind  moves, 
and  the  length  of  time  they  can  remain  in  the  air 


124  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 

without  descending.  That  as  a  rule  swarms  under  favour- 
able conditions  arise  in  the  morning,  about  eight  to  ten 
o'clock,  after  the  dew  is  off,  and  the  warmth  of  the  sun 
is  felt,  and  settle  down  again  to  eat  as  night  approaches, 
by  four  or  five  in  the  afternoon,  is  well  established ; 
that  is,  they  can  sustain  themselves  an  entire  day  in  the 
air.  The  rate  at  which  they  travel  is  variously  estimated 
at  from  three  to  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  per  hour,  deter- 
mined by  the  velocity  of  the  wind  ;  a  day's  flight  may 
therefore  be  estimated  at  from  twenty  to  a  hundred 
and  fifty  miles.  But  there  are  numerous  facts  which 
go  to  prove  that  a  single  flight  may  extend  much  farther 
than  the  longer  distance  here  given :  many  persons 
believe  the  insects  can  remain  in  the  air  for  days  with- 
out coming  down.  While  this  is  an  extreme  opinion, 
it  seems  undoubtedly  true  that  they  do  sometimes 
continue  their  flights  for  more  than  a  day;  that 
they  may,  and  do  travel  at  night,  has  been  recently 
clearly  shown.  Their  general  habit  of  alighting  in  the 
evening  and  resuming  their  journey  next  day  after  sun- 
rise, if  the  weather  is  fine,  together  with  the  difficulty 
of  observing  them  at  night,  have  led  to  the  general, 
but  erroneous,  impression  that  there  are  no  exceptions 
to  the  rule. 

There  are  good  reasons  for  believing  that  the 
exceptions  are  much  more  numerous  than  might  be 
supposed,  that  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  the  insects 


LOCUSTS  AND   GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRIDIID&\     125 

to  fly  at  night  when  the  weather  is  warm  and  the  wind 
favourable.  This  fact,  in  connection  with  the  strong 
probability,  nay,  certainty,  that  swarms  frequently  fly 
at  such  a  height  as  to  be  invisible  in  the  daytime,  will 
alone  account  for  their  repeated  sudden  and  mysterious 
appearances  in  the  morning,  at  other  times  in  the  after- 
noon of  bright  clear  days,  in  localities,  when  nothing 
had  been  seen  or  heard  of  them  along  the  line  they  had 
come.  It  is  possible  they  prefer  nights  when  the  moon 
shines,  though  they  are  probably  not  confined  to  them  ; 
the  warmth  and  wind  being  the  influencing  conditions. 
Obviously,  this  point  is  an  important  item  in  determining 
the  possible  distance  to  which  single  flights  may  extend. 
Flying  two  clays  and  a  night,  say  thirty  hours,  with  a 
moderately  strong  and  long-continued  wind,  they  may 
pass  over  a  distance  of  from  four  hundred  and  fifty  to 
five  hundred  miles,  and  more,  before  alighting. 

As  evidence  of  the  locusts'  power  of  prolonged 
flight,  the  fact  that  they  traverse  seas  of  considerable 
width  may  be  stated  ;  though  the  sea  is  undoubtedly 
often  a  source  of  destruction  of  swarms.  They  have 
been  known  to  reach  the  Canary  Isles  from  the  African 
coast ;  to  come  into  Cyprus  from  the  neighbouring 
coasts  of  Asia  Minor  ;  to  cross  over  the  Red  Sea.  They 
have  been  seen  in  the  Balearic  Isles,  having  come  from 
North  Africa,  and  there  are  well-authenticated  cases  of 
their  occurrence  at  sea.  On  November  2,  1865,  a 


i26  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE  INSECTS. 

on  the  voyage  from  Bordeaux  to  Boston,  when  twelve 
hundred  miles  from  the  nearest  land,  was  boarded  by  a 
swarm,  the  air  being  filled  and  the  sails  of  the  ship 
covered  with  them  for  two  days.  The  species  proved 
to  be  Acridium  (Schist  ocerca)  peregrinum.  This  is  a 
most  striking  case,  for  locusts  do  not  fly  with  rapidity, 
being,  indeed,  as  we  have  seen,  chiefly  borne  by  the 
wind.  It  is  possible  some  species  may  occasionally 
come  down  on  the  water  at  night,  proceeding  some- 
what after  the  fashion  of  "  Voetgangers  "  when  crossing 
rivers  as  described  by  Mrs.  Barber — in  such  masses 
as  to  buoy  many  without  being  submerged.  An  account 
of  an  occurrence  of  the  kind  may  be  read  in  Sir  Hans 
Sloane's  history  of  Jamaica,  where  it  is  stated  that  in 
1649  locusts  devastated  the  island  of  Teneriffe,  that  they 
were  seen  to  come  from  Africa  on  the  wind,  and  that, 
on  the  way  over,  they  alighted  on  the  water,  in  a  heap 
as  big  as  the  largest  ship,  and  the  next  day,  having 
renewed  their  vigour  under  the  influence  of  the  sun, 
they  took  flight  again  and  landed  in  clouds  at  Teneriffe. 
De  Saussure  says  the  great  oceans  are,  as  a  rule, 
impassable  to  locusts,  and  that  not  a  single  specimen  of 
the  tribe  Oedipodides  has  passed  from  the  Old  World 
to  the  New.  Nevertheless,  it  may  be  that  Acridium 
peregrinum,  of  the  tribe  Acridiides,  was  originally 
native  to  America,  and  migrated  from  there  to  the 
Old  World. 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRIDlIDsE).     127 

Locusts   Enemies. 

For  dread  of  their  hereditary  enemies  the  locust-birds, 
the  locusts  will  exert  their  extraordinary  powers  of  flight  ; 
they  are  thought  to  travel  day  and  night  until  com- 
pletely exhausted,  in  the  effort  to  elude  these  arch- 
enemies' pursuit  and  attack.  But  all  in  vain  ;  sooner  or 
later  the  birds  overtake  the  locusts.  There  is  the  brown 
swallow-like  locust-bird  (Glarcola  Nordmanni),  the  locust- 
eating  stork  (Ciconia  alba\  the  grey  mottled  starling 
(Dilophus  carunculatus\  and  others.  All  these  are  not 
only  gregarious,  but  migratory  as  well,  having  no  fixed 
habitat,  but  follow  on  the  trail  of  the  locusts  in  Africa. 
The  first-named  travels  in  multitudes  second  only  to  the 
locusts  themselves,  and  are  in  every  respect  built  for 
rapid  flight.  Coming  up  with  their  prey,  according  to 
their  favourite  mode,  they  "  fall  to  "  at  their  feast  in  its 
passage  through  the  air.  While  they  feed,  at  the  same 
time  they  cut  off  with  their  broad  beaks  the  legs  and 
wings  of  the  locusts  they  devour,  which  fall  to  the  earth  in 
myriads — a  curious  and  novel  sight.  In  stormy  weather, 
when  pursued  by  these  birds,  and  they  are  unable  to  fly, 
the  locusts  seek  shelter  amongst  the  shrubs  and  grasses, 
creeping  into  them  for  concealment ;  but  the  birds 
descend  in  their  train  and  hunt  them  up,  taking  advantage 
also  of  them  in  the  morning  when  they  are  numbed  with 
cold,  and  cannot  rise. 


128  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

It  is  upon  the  "  Voetgangers  "  the  various  species  of 
locust-birds  depend  for  food  for  their  young,  not  upon 
the  winged  imagoes,  which  are  never  stationary.  Ascer- 
taining to  a  certainty  the  locality  where  the  locusts  have 
laid  their  eggs,  the  birds  there,  for  the  time  being,  take 
up  their  abode.  By  the  time  the  process  of  nest-build- 
ing and  incubation  is  accomplished,  the  young  locusts 
have  likewise  made  their  appearance,  so  that  there  is 
abundance  of  food  for  the  young  birds.  But  occasionally 
dire  calamity  o'ertakes  them — ere  the  latter  are  fledged 
the  "  Voetgangers  "  have  started  on  their  travels  to  the 
north.  In  most  cases,  when  the  locusts  have  arrived  at 
maturity,  and  take  wing,  the  locust-birds  are  ready  to 
accompany  them,  and  together,  enemies  and  prey?  they 
vanish  on  their  wanderings. 

Blackbirds,  the  Prairie  hen  (Cupidonia  cupidd)  and 
quail  (Ortyx  virginianus),  and  the  Plovers,  are  all  efficient 
workers  in  the  destruction  of  locusts  in  America  ;  the 
Himalayan  Black  Bear,  the  skunk,  squirrels,  mice,  frogs, 
and  lizards,  may  be  mentioned  among  other  vertebrate 
animals  more  or  less  useful  as  locust  destroyers.  In 
Africa,  in  seasons  of  famine,  when  the  hordes  have 
swept  over  the  earth,  all  creatures,  including  the  human 
races  of  the  South,  take  to  a  locust  diet.  But,  excepting 
to  the  feathered  tribes,  it  proves  by  no  means  whole- 
some food. 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRIDIIDM).     129 


Invertebrate  Enemies. 

Insect  and  other  minute  enemies  and  parasites  aid 
very  materially  in  this  destructive  work.     Many  of  the 
larger  species  of  Ground  beetles   (Carabidae)  are  most 
active  pursuers  and  devourers  of  the  locust.     The  swift- 
running  and  flying  Tiger  beetles  (Cicindelidae)  have  pre- 
daceous  habits  and  similar  tastes.     One  would  hardly 
imagine  that  their  stationary  larvae,  living  within  cylin- 
drical holes,  and  entrapping  any  unwary  insects  that  may 
chance  to  come  within  reach  of  their  formidable  jaws, 
could  succeed  with  such  an  active  creature  as  the  locust. 
Yet  the  young  locusts  fall  victims  to  the  larvae ;  they 
are  dragged  to  the  bottom  of  the  burrow,  and  devoured. 
Asilus  flies  are  also  particularly  fond  of  them,  pouncing 
upon  and  carrying  them  off  to  some  nook  where,  unmo- 
lested, they  can  suck  their  juices.     Digger  Wasps  catch 
them  and  paralyze  them  with  their  sting,  and  drag  them 
into  the  holes  they  have  dug  in  the  soil,  which  are  thus 
provisioned  with  food  for  the  subsequent  use  of  their 
larvae.     Scorpions  make  away  with  large  numbers  both 
of  the  "  Voetgangers  "  and  adults.    They  hunt  by  stealth  ; 
and  on  hot,  sunny  days,  when  the  locusts  are  feeding,  lie 
in  wait  and  spring  upon  their  prey,  after  which  it  is  con- 
veyed to  their  dwelling-places  beneath  the  rocks.    Trap- 
door  spiders,   when   a  swarm  passes  by,   will   suddenly 


130  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

rush  from  their  den,  seize  a  locust,  and  hurry  it  headlong 
down  their  gloomy  hole,  never  again  to  see  the  light  of 
day.  Ants,  mantidae,  dragon- flies,  and  others,  doubtless 
do  their  part  in  helping  to  keep  the  locust  in  check. 

Fastening  themselves  to  it,  under  the  wings,  the  Locust 
Mites  suck  the  carcase  to  a  dry  shell,  the  dead  bodies  of 
the  locusts  sometimes  almost  covering  plants,  where  they 
have  taken  hold  of  a  leaf  or  stalk,  and  clasped  it  with  a 
dead  embrace  ;  while  others  fall  to  the  ground  to  die. 

The  enemies  of  the  locust  so  far  mentioned  either 
devour  it  bodily,  suck  its  juices,  or  are  parasitic  upon  it 
externally.  There  remain  those  which  prey  upon  it 
internally,  the  most  numerous  and  beneficial  of  which 
are  the  larvae  of  the  Tachina-flies.  These  attach  their 
eggs  to  the  parts  of  the  body  not  easily  reached  by  the 
jaws  and  legs  of  their  victim,  so  as  to  prevent  the  egg 
from  being  detached.  The  locusts  are  attacked  on  the 
wing,  and  one  haunted  by  a  Tachina-fly  makes  frantic 
efforts  to  evade  the  enemy.  But  the  fly  persistently 
buzzes  around,  waiting  her  opportunity,  and  when  the 
locust  flies  or  hops,  darts  at  it  and  attempts  to  fasten  her 
egg  under  the  wing  or  on  the  neck.  Often  she  fails,  but 
perseveres  until  usually  her  task  is  accomplished.  The 
larvae  that  hatch  from  these  eggs  eat  into  the  body  of 
the  locust,  and  after  living  for  a  time  on  its  fatty  parts, 
issue  and  complete  their  metamorphoses  elsewhere.  A 
locust  infested,  though  enfeebled,  seldom  dies  till  the 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRTDIID&).     131 

maggots  have  left.  So  efficient  is  this  parasite  in 
America,  frequently  the  ground  is  covered  with  locusts 
dead  and  dying  from  this  cause  ;  and  in  this  manner  whole 
swarms  are  rendered  harmless.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  the  constant  annoyances  of  these  flies  were  suggested 
as  at  times  one  of  the  immediate  causes  of  locust  migra- 
tion. In  warm  weather,  the  flies  multiply  rapidly,  pass- 
ing through  their  transformations  in  the  course  of  a 


FIG.  23. — Methone  anderssoni,  specially  remarkable  for  its  complex  organs  for 
producing  sound. 

fortnight  ;  but  in  the  cooler  seasons  the  development 
under  ground  is  delayed,  the  winter  being  usually  passed 
in  the  puparium. 

Klinckel  d'Herculais  finds  that  Stauronotus  maroc- 
canus  and  other  Aridiidae  are  followed  on  their  devasta- 
ting march  by  viviparous  Diptera,  which  deposit  their 
larvae  in  the  bodies  of  the  locusts,  the  parasitism  of 
these  larvae  resulting  in  a  sort  of  rachitic  condition, 
answering  to  that  produced  by  the  Tachina-flies  on  the 
Rocky  Mountain  Locust.  It  is  an  odd  and  interesting 


132  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

fact  that  not  a  single  member  of  the  great  family 
Ichneumonidse — insects  essentially  parasitic — is  known 
to  attack  the  locust,  either  in  Europe  or  America. 


Some  Species  of  Acridiidce  Present  an  Unusual  Aspect. 

The  very  large  number  of  species  of  Acridiidae  have 
been  recently  arranged  in  nine  tribes.  Although  the 
migratory  locusts,  just  consiuered,  and,  indeed,  the 
majority  of  this  great  host,  are  readily  recognized  from 
their  family  resemblance  as  belonging  to  the  group, 
there  are  others  that  present  an  unusual  aspect.  Such 
is  specially  the  case  with  the  members  of  the  tribes 
Proscopides,  Tettigides,  and  Pneumorides,  and  with 
some  of  the  wingless  forms  of  the  Oedipodides,  a  species 
of  which  we  figure. 

The  tribe  Proscopides  (see  Fig.  21)  includes  some  of 
the  most  curious  of  the  Acridiidae.  Of  their  metamor- 
phoses, which  are  probably  trifling,  we  are  ignorant ;  of 
their  habits  we  know  little.  Their  colours  are  sober 
and  dull,  and  Breitenbach  describes  the  finding  of  some 
in  abundance  which  he  had  overlooked  for  a  long  time, 
since  they  exactly  resemble  the  withered  vegetation 
amongst  which  they  sit.  When  alarmed  they  seek  safety 
with  a  lengthy  and  "  lightning-like  "  leap.  Their  general 
resemblance  to  Phasmidse,  or  Stick  Insects,  is  striking. 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRIDIID^E\     133 

But  although  the  linear  form  and  the  very  long  body 
are  common  to  both,  this  structure  is  due  to  the  develop- 
ment of  different  parts  in  the  two  families.  In  Phasmidae 
the  prothorax  is  short,  the  mesothorax  elongate,  while 
in  Proscopides  the  reverse  is  the  case.  The  great 
length  of  head  is  very  curious  in  these  insects  ;  but  the 
mouth  is  not  thereby  brought  nearer  to  the  front,  but 
is  placed  on  the  lower  side  of  the  head,  quite  close  to 
the  thorax.  In  most  cases  the  sexes  differ  strongly  from 
one  another,  and  both  usually  are  entirely  apterous.  But 
the  genus  Astroma  displays  a  remarkable  exception, 
and  an  almost  unique  condition  of  the  organs  of  flight, 
the  front  wings  being  absent  in  each  sex,  while  the 
female  has  rudiments  of  the  hind  pair  which  are  wanting 
in  the  male. 

Of  the  tribe  Tryxalides,  Tryxalis  pharaonis,  Klug, 
(see  Fig.  19)  is  a  handsome  species,  found  in  Sicily, 
Egypt,  Algeria,  Caucasus,  and  Andalusia.  This  insect 
approaches  the  Proscopides  in  form  of  the  head  and 
other  characters.  The  tribe  includes  a  great  many 
species  of  grasshoppers.  It  and  the  Acridiides  are  the 
most  numerous  in  species  of  the  family ;  and  to  the 
latter  belong  most  of  the  migratory  locusts  of  the  New 
World. 

We  come  to  the  tribe  Tettigides,  a  very  extensive 
group  of  small  Acridiidae,  remarkable  for  the  shape  of 
the  pronotum,  which  is  prolonged  backwards  as  a  hood 


134  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE   INSECTS. 

reaching  to,  or  beyond,  the  extremity  of  the  body.  In 
our  British  species  this  hood  does  not  greatly  modify 
the  appearance  of  the  insect,  but  in  many  exotic  species, 
as  in  Xerophyllum,  it  assumes  a  grotesque  form,  so  that 
the  insects  have  no  longer  the  appearance  of  Orthoptera, 
and  when  the  genus  Xerophyllum  was  for  the  first  time 
described,  it  was  mistaken  for  a  bug.  There  is  an 
immense  variety  of  forms  of  this  extraordinary  pro- 
thoracic  expansion.  The  odd  Cladonotus  humbertianus 
is  a  native  of  Ceylon,  where  it  frequents  sandy  meadows 
after  the  fashion  of  our  indigenous  species  of  Tettix. 
Strange  to  say,  some  of  these  curious  Tettigides,  of  the 
genus  Scelimena,  are  amphibious  in  habit.  They  live 
on  the  borders  of  streams  and  ponds,  and  frequently 
dash  on  the  water,  and  leap  on  their  hind  legs  and 
flutter  with  their  wings.  In  this  way  they  strike  the 
water  without  getting  very  wet ;  nor  do  they  fear  to 
enter  the  water,  and  leap  about  there  ;  indeed  it  is  said 
they  prefer  submerged  plants  as  food.  This  singular 
habit  has  been  observed  in  Ceylon  and  the  Himalayas. 
The  species  have  the  hind  legs  provided  with  foliaceous 
dilatations  probably  suitable  for  swimming.  These 
insects  also  frequent  the  little  streams  of  water  which 
trickle  along  the  rocks,  being  often  found  clinging  to  a 
rock  entirely  immersed,  as  though  they  were  enjoying 
a  bath. 

The   tribe   Pneumorides  includes  a  small  number  of 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRID1IDM).     135 

species  of  very  aberrant  and  remarkable  grasshoppers, 
peculiar  to  South  Africa.  They  are  large,  with  short 
antennae,  and  with  the  pronotum  prolonged  backward 
and  hood-like.  Unhappily,  although  amongst  the  most 
remarkable  of  insects,  we  are  unacquainted  with  their 
habits.  We  give  an  illustration  of  the  beautiful  species 
Pneiimora  scutellaris  (see  Fig.  22).  While  the  male  is 
bountifully  winged,  the  female  must  be  necessarily 
sedentary,  because  of  the  imperfection  of  her  alar 
system.  From  the  form  of  the  hind  legs  and  their 
short  length,  it  may  be  presumed  that  their  leaping 
powers  are  null,  or  but  slight.  P.  scutellaris  is  very 
remarkable  from  the  difference  in  colour  of  the  sexes. 
So  brilliant  is  the  female,  she  has  been  said  to  look  as 
if  "  got  up  "  for  a  fancy  dress  ball.  She  is  of  a  bright 
green,  with  numerous  marks  or  patches  of  pearly  white, 
each  of  them  invested  with  a  disk  of  a  mauve  or 
magenta  colour.  Though  the  female  is  thus  resplendent, 
her  consort  is  of  a  modest,  almost  unornamented  green. 
He  is,  however,  furnished  with  a  musical  apparatus,  by 
which  he  may  be  enabled  to  charm  his  gorgeous  but 
dumb  spouse.  1 1  consists  of  a  series  of  fine  ridges  situated 
on  the  sides  of  the  inflated  abdomen,  this  part  of  the 
body  having  every  appearance  of  being  inflated  and 
tense  with  the  result  of  increasing  the  volume  and 
quality  of  the  sound. 

The  Pamphagides  also  chiefly  inhabit  Africa  and  the 


136  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE   INSECTS. 

arid  regions  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
Many  are  apterous  forms,  a  circumstance  that  has, 
according  to  Saussure,  exercised  a  marked  influence  on 
the  geographical  distribution  of  the  species  ;  but  several 
species  have  well-developed  wings.  Some  of  the  species 
are  modified  to  a  great  extent  for  a  desert  life,  and 
exhibit  a  great  variety  in  the  tint  of  the  individuals  in 
conformity  with  that  of  the  soil  on  which  they  live. 


Colour  Difference  Correlative  with  Locality. 

To  the  tribe  Oedipodides  we  have  already  referred  as 
including  most  of  the  species  of  migratory  locusts  of 
the  Old  World.  Some  remarkable  cases  of  colour- 
variation  have  been  noted  amongst  the  winged  Oedipo- 
dides. In  some  species  the  hind  wings  may  be  either 
blue  or  red  ;  it  is  thought  that  the  latter  is  the  tint 
natural  in  the  species,  and  that  the  blue-coloured  wings 
are  a  kind  of  albinism.  But  the  most  remarkable  thing 
is  that  this  wing-colour  is  correlative  with  locality.  In 
the  few  localities  in  Europe  where  the  blue  variety  of 
Oe.  variabilis  occurs,  for  example,  not  a  single  red 
specimen  can  be  met  with.  Attention  has  been  drawn 
to  similar  phenomena  in  other  species  in  North  America, 
and  L.  Brunner  suggests  that  the  phenomena  in  that 
country  are  related  to  climatic  conditions. 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS   (ACRIDIID&).     137 

He  finds  red-winged  species  most  common  in  humid 
regions,  yellow-winged  in  more  or  less  arid  districts, 
while  the  blue-winged  forms  are  found  chiefly  in 
mountainous  regions  just  between  the  dry  and  the  wet 
conditions ;  and  this  same  variation  is  observed  among 
the  representatives  of  the  tribe  in  Mexico.  So 
characteristic  does  this  variation  in  colour  of  the  wings 
appear,  that  he  almost  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  an 
examination  of  a  fair  representative  collection  of  these 
insects  would  be  a  sufficient  index  of  the  climate  of  the 
region  from  which  they  came. 


Modifications  for  a  Desert  Life. 

The  Eremobiens,  a  subdivision  of  Oedipodides,  include 
some  of  the  most  interesting  forms  of  Acridiidse.     The 

o 

most  peculiar  members  of  the  group  are  some  very 
large  insects,  specially  modified  for  a  sedentary  and 
desert  life.  Methone  anderssoni,  found  in  the  Karoo 
Desert  of  South  Africa,  and  one  of  the  largest  of  the 
Acridiidae,  is  most  noteworthy  (see  Fig.  23).  This 
species  is  remarkable  for  its  complex  instruments  for 
producing  sound,  and  for  the  modification  of  its  great 
hind  legs,  which  have  no  saltatorial  function,  and  but 
little,  if  any,  power  of  locomotion,  but  act  as  parts  of 
the  sound-producing  apparatus,  and  as  agents  for 


138  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE   INSECTS. 

protecting  the  sides  of  the  body.  Both  sexes  are 
possessed  of  sound-producing  organs,  though  the  female 
is  deficiently  provided  as  compared  with  the  male.  On 
examining  the  first  abdominal  segment  in  either  sex,  a 
peculiar  swelling  is  seen  bearing  two  or  three  strongly- 
raised  chitinous  folds,  which  being  struck  by  some 
peg-like  projections  on  the  inner  side  of  the  base  of 
the  femur,  a  considerable  noise  is  produced.  Immediately 
behind  the  folds,  there  is  a  prominent  striated  surface  ; 
this  is  rubbed  by  some  fine  asperities  on  the  inner  part 
of  the  femur.  These  structures  appear  to  be  phonetic, 
at  least  in  the  male  ;  in  the  female  they  appear  to  be 
somewhat  less  well  developed  than  in  the  other  sex. 
The  male  has  still  another  phonetic  structure.  His 
tegmina,  though  rudimentary,  are  much  longer  than  in 
the  female,  and  their  prolonged  part  is  strongly  ridged, 
over  which  moves  the  edge  of  the  denticulate  and 
serrate  femur,  giving  rise  to  a  louder  and  different 
sound.  In  the  female  there  is  nothing  analogous  to 
this  ;  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  it  is  a  sound- 
producing  instrument  peculiar  to  the  male.  In  situation 
it  approaches  the  musical  apparatus  of  the  males  of  the 
Stenobothri  and  other  Acridiidae.  Methone  anderssoni 
possesses  large  tympanal  organs,  which  the  small 
tegmina  cover  up. 

In  no  other  member  of  the  Eremobiens,  in  no  other 
Orthopteron,  are    the   phonetic  organs  so   complex   as 


LOCUSTS  AND    GRASSHOPPERS  (ACRIDIID^.}.     139 

they  are  in  the  male  of  this  insect.  It  would  appear 
probable  it  has  the  power  of  producing  two,  if  not 
more,  distinct  sounds. 

In  habit  it  is  exceedingly  sedentary,  and  apparently 
seeks  safety  in  its  protective  resemblance  and  its 
stridulation,  rather  than  by  any  attempt  at  flight.  Its 
wings  indeed  are  totally  unfit  for  movement,  being  quite 
rudimentary,  and  the  posterior  legs  seem  equally  un- 
adapted  for  this  purpose ;  they  are  enormous  in  breadth, 
dilated  more  than  in  other  AcridiidaD.  When  Methone 
walks,  it  does  so  by  means  of  its  four  anterior  legs 
alone,  on  which  it  moves  raised  up  as  if  on  stilts,  when 
probably  the  hind  pair  drag  useless  along  the  ground. 
In  repose  these  odd  hind  legs  are  pressed  close  to  the 
sides  of  the  body,  and  the  tibiae  are  hid,  the  insect 
then — its  colours  being  those  of  the  desert  sands- 
resembling,  so  closely  as  to  be  mistaken  for,  a  clod  of 
earth. 

Among  others  modified  to  an  extraordinary  extent 
for  their  conditions  of  life,  there  is  the  curious  Trachy- 
petra  bufo,  another  South  African  species.  It  lives 
among  stones,  and  Trimen  says  it  resembles  with  such 
precision  the  appearance  of  the  stones  that  he  had 
much  difficulty  to  detect  it.  He  noticed  that  in  certain 
spots,  often  only  a  few  square  yards  in  extent,  where 
the  stones  lying  on  the  ground  were  darker,  lighter,  or 
more  mottled  than  those  generally  prevalent,  the 


140  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

individuals  of  the  grasshopper  varied  similarly  in  colour 
in  imitation  of  the  stones.  The  differences  found  among 
individuals  of  the  same  species  of  desert  Eremobiens  are 
sometimes  wonderfully  great. 

Two  peculiar  North  American  genera,  Haldmanella 
and  Brachystola,  are  known  to  represent  this  group 
in  the  New  World.  From  its  strange  form  and  move- 
ments, B.  magnet  has  received  the  popular  names  of 
"buffalo-hopper"  and  ''lubber-grasshopper."  Almost 
equal  in  size  to  Met  hone  anderssoni,  it  is  not,  like  that 
insect,  in  correspondence  with  arid  spots.  It  inhabits 
verdant  prairies  in  temperate  regions  ;  and  is  more  or 
less  smooth  of  body,  and  green  in  tint,  and  rests 
concealed  during  the  day  under  tufts  of  grass.  Sound- 
producing  instruments  it  has  none,  though  there  may 
be  vestiges  or  rudiments  of  these. 

Our  native  Acridiidae  belong  chiefly  to  the  genera 
Stenobothrus  and  Gomphocerus,  whose  musical  instru- 
ments have  been  described.  They  are  the  little  grass- 
hoppers which  are  common  in  our  fields,  and  well  known 
to  children  for  their  saltatorial  powers.  The  species 
of  the  genus  Tettix  are  not  uncommon.  Besides  these 
Acridiidse,  it  will  be  remembered,  three  species  of 
migratory  locusts  are  occasionally  met  with  in  Britain. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

x 

GREEN    GRASSHOPPERS    (LOCUSTID^). 

THE  family  Locustidae  contains  none  of  the  true  locusts. 
From  the  Acridiidse  we  have  seen  these  insects  can  be 
readily  distinguished  by  their  very  long,  delicate  antennae 
and  four-jointed  tarsi ;  and  in  other  characters  they  differ 
essentially.  Although  as  a  rule  provided  with  large 
wings,  they  have  not  the  same  power  of  flight  as  the 
Acridiidae  ;  it  is  believed  there  are  no  air  vesicles  con- 
nected with  the  tracheal  system  ;  and  to  this  may  be  due 
the  fact  that  none  of  the  Locustidae  undertake  those 
great  migrations,  so  destructive  to  vegetation,  that  have 
rendered  some  of  the  foregoing  family  notorious.  As 
a  rule,  they  are  less  robust  than  Acridiidae,  their  ocelli 
are  considerably  less  perfect,  and  the  head  is  often  pro- 
duced in  front  into  a  curious  cone-shaped  projection, 
the  use  of  which  is  totally  unknown,  as  in  a  large  number 
of  Conocephalides.  One  of  their  most  characteristic 
features  is  the  ovipositor,  which  frequently  exceeds  the 
length  of  the  body.  Not  present  in  the  newly-hatched 


142 


TRUE    TALES    OF  THE   INSECTS. 


Locustid,  the  organ  becomes  gradually  developed,  and 
the  completed  structure  is  formed  by  the  apposition  of 
no  less  than  six  rods  or  pieces. 


Life  Histories. 

Its  mode  of  use  is  not  always  the  same,  some  species 
depositing  their  eggs  in  the  earth,  and  some  place  them 


FIG.  24. — Pterochroza  ocellata>  its  tegmina  resembling  leaves. 

in  parts  of  plants.      Light  soil,  easily  pierced,  is  chosen, 
and  the  apparatus  thrust  to  a  considerable  depth   into 


GREEN  GRASSHOPPERS  (LCCUSTID&).  143 

the  ground.     The  British  Meconema  varium  lays  in  the 
galls  developed    on  oaks   by  the    puncture   of  Cynips. 


FIG.  25.— A  cave-dweller  (Dolichopoda  palpatd). 

We  find  somewhat  similar  habits  in  North  America,  in 
Xiphidium  ensiferum,  a  very  common  Locustid  in  some 
of  the  States,  the  silvery  napiform  galls  produced  by 
a  species  of  Cecidomyia  on  the  stems  of  willows  being 
selected  for  the  reception  of  the  eggs.  The  insect 
thrusts  its  ensate  ovipositor  in  between  the  imbricated 
scales,  and  leaves  the  eggs  completely  concealed,  the 
overlapping  edges  of  the  scales  springing  back  to  their 
original  positions  as  soon  as  the  ovipositor  is  withdrawn. 
Some  of  these  Cecidomyia  galls  are  more  or  less  fusi- 
form, with  flat,  closely  applied  scales,  which  are  far  less 
well  adapted  than  the  more  spacious  interstices  of  the 
globular  galls  for  the  eggs.  Between  the  closely 
appressed  scales  of  the  spindle-shaped  galls,  many  are 
so  flattened  as  to  be  incapable  of  developing  ;  but  the 
Locustids  appear  to  show  no  preference  for  the  globular 


i44  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE   INSECTS. 

galls.  They  seem,  however,  to  prefer  ovipositing,  not 
in  fresh  galls,  as  might  be  supposed,  but  in  blackened 
and  weather-beaten  specimens  that  have  persisted 
through  several  seasons,  probably  because  the  scales 
are  more  easily  forced  apart.* 

Since  the  imagines  of  X.  ensiferum  oviposit  from  the 
middle  of  August  to  September,  and  hatching  is  delayed 
until  the  following  May  or  June,  eight  to  nine  months 
is  therefore  required  for  embryonic  development,  and 
the  whole  post-embryonic  development  must  be  passed 
through  in  three  months.  Development  of  the  embryo 
begins  in  autumn,  but  a  period  of  quiescence  super- 
venes, due  to  cold  weather. 

Several  of  the  congeners  of  X.  ensiferum  lay  their 
eggs  in  the  pith  of  twigs.  Fissures  in  twigs  and  stems 
of  trees  and  shrubs  are  chosen  by  many  for  the  purpose. 
The  eggs  of  Microcentrus  retinervis  constantly  attract 
attention  on  account  of  their  large  size,  their  remarkable 
regularity  of  arrangement,  and  exposed  position.  They 
are  deposited  in  one  or  two  rows  overlapping  each  other, 
upon  twigs  or  margins  of  leaves.  They  are  laid  in 
autumn,  during  the  day  occasionally,  but  usually  at  night, 
and  become  more  swollen  as  they  approach  the  hatching 
period  in  spring.  In  the  early  part  of  May  hatching 
occurs,  the  young  insect  undergoing  a  moult  during 
the  process.  By  the  time  emergence  is  completed, 

*  Embryology  of  this  insect,  Wheeler,  J.  Morphol,  viii.  1893. 


GREEN  GRASSHOPPERS  (LOCUSTID&).  145 

it  is  a  matter  of  wonder  how  the  Microcentrum  could  so 
recently  have  been  compressed  into  the  comparatively 
small  shell  beside  it.  After  a  few  minutes  the  little 
beings  essay  their  first  leaps,  and  soon  commence  to  eat 
with  avidity. 

Including  the  moult  in  leaving  the  egg,  they  cast 
skins  five  times,  acquiring  wings  at  the  fifth.  Almost 
the  first  efforts  of  the  liberated  insect  are  directed  to 
the  task  of  eating  up  its  out-grown  and  out-worn  integu- 
ment. Post-embryonic  development  takes  about  ten 
weeks.  When  first  out  of  the  pupal  covering,  the  wings 
hang  down  on  each  side,  limp  and  shapeless,  but  soon 
begin  to  dry  and  harden,  and  gradually  are  drawn  into 
place,  and  assume  their  green  colour. 

Ears. 

The  Locustidse  resemble  the  Acridiidse  in  the  pos- 
session of  special  organs  of  hearing,  or  ears,  but  their 
situation  is  not  the  same  as  in  Acridiidae.  In  Locustidae, 
in  both  sexes,  a  pair  of  ears  usually  occur  near  the 
proximal  end  of  each  tibia  of  the  front  pair  of  legs  ; 
a  tympanum,  or  a  slit  or  crack  opening  into  a  cavity  in 
which  the  tympanum  is  placed,  is  seen  on  each  side  of 
the  legs.  The  ears  may  be  divided  into  two  principal 
kinds,  according  to  the  state  of  the  tympanum,  which 
is  either  exposed,  or  hid  by  a  prominence  of  the 


146  TRUE   TALES    OF  THE  INSECTS. 

integument.  That  these  organs  on  the  legs  of  Locustidae 
are  auditory  organs  has  been  ascertained  beyond  doubt. 
It  is,  in  fact,  only  reasonable  that  insects  provided  with 
special  sound-producing  apparatus,  as  we  shall  presently 
see  the  Locustidse  are,  should  also  be  furnished  with 
specialized  ears. 

A  structure  of  a  remarkable  nature  occurs  in  con- 
nection with  the  ears.  At  the  posterior  lateral  angle  of 
the  prothorax,  just  over  the  insertion  of  the  front  leg, 
an  open  orifice  is  found  ;  it  is  quite  close  to  the  protho- 
racic  stigma,  but  is  larger  than  it ;  it  communicates  with 
the  one  on  the  opposite  side,  and  from  them  there 
extend  processes  along  the  anterior  legs  that  narrow  in 
passing  the  knee,  and  at  last  dilate  in  the  tibiae,  so  as 
to  form  longitudinal  vesicles,  one  of  which  is  in  proximity 
to  each  tympanum  of  the  ear.  This  prothoracic  orifice, 
which  exists  in  the  two  sexes,  among  nymphs,  and 
among  larvae,  and  these  leg-tracheae,  do  not  communi- 
cate with  the  tracheal  system.  Why  the  acoustic  organs 
should  require  a  supply  of  air  other  than  that  which 
could  be  obtained  through  the  ordinary  tracheal  system, 
remains  to  be  determined. 

Although  these  tibial  organs  of  Locustidae  have 
certainly  the  function  of  hearing,  there  is  great  difficulty 
in  deciding  as  to  the  exact  kind  of  sounds  to  which  they 
are  sensitive.  Nor  is  it  even  understood  how  the  sounds 
are  transmitted  to  the  nerves. 


GREEN  GRASSHOPPERS   (LOCUSTID^).  147 


Musical  Organs  and  Music. 

The  Locustidse  are  famed  for  their  musical  powers. 
Among  them,  the  stridulating  apparatus,  when  present, 
is  always  situate  on  the  base  of  the  wing-covers.  The 
left-hand  tegmen  has  a  roughened  portion  on  the  inner 
surface,  serving  as  a  file  or  bar,  the  right  tegmen  has  a 
sharp  edge  on  its  inner  margin  ;  and  by  rubbing  the 
base  of  one  wing-cover  upon  the  other,  and  vibrating 
them  rapidly,  a  musical  sound,  or  stridulation,  is  pro- 
duced. The  extent  of  the  delicate  vibrating  membrane 
of  the  wings  which  is  brought  into  action  is  small,  and 
when  the  tegmina  are  very  rudimentary  in  size,  it  is 
these  fields  indispensable  for  stridulation  that  are  pre- 
served. With  but  few  exceptions,  the  males  alone 
are  provided  with  organs  of  stridulation  ;  in  the  tribe 
Ephippigerides  they  exist  in  both  sexes. 

There  is  much  variety  in  the  structure.  In  this  por- 
tion of  the  tegmina,  the  nervures  not  only  differ  in  the 
male  from  those  of  the  female,  the  arrangement  of  the 
nervures  in  the  male  is  not  symmetrical  in  the  two  teg- 
mina. On  the  right  tegmen  is  usually  a  small  plate,  or 
space,  formed  by  a  slender,  tightly  stretched,  hyaline 
membrane,  which,  being  put  into  vibration,  probably 
increases  the  sound.  In  our  large  Green  Grasshopper, 
Locusta  viridissima,  though  the  musical  organs  are  by 


148  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 

no  means  of  a  highly  specialized  character,  each  tegmen 
appears  to  act  as  a  sounding-board. 

Although  in  a  large  number  of  instances  amply  winged, 
the  Locustidae  seem  generally  of  a  somewhat  sedentary 
nature,  availing  themselves  little  of  the  wings  for  flight, 
using  them  rather  as  a  kind  of  parachute,  in  descending 
from  the  trees  to  the  ground.  Moreover,  they  are 
chiefly  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  though  not  entirely  so. 
"  These  are  the  merry  choristers,"  says  Riley,  speaking 
of  American  forms,  "  that  make  our  woods  and  valleys 
ring  with  their  pleasant  songs  during  the  evenings  of 
late  summer  and  early  fall."  The  songs  of  the  different 
species  are  very  varied  ;  indeed,  each  different  species 
may  ordinarily  be  distinguished  by  its  peculiar  note  ; 
but  the  study  not  infrequently  presents  some  difficul- 
ties. Locusta  viridissima  produces  a  shrill  stridula- 
tion,  and  sometimes  chirps  a  little  in  the  day.  Bates 
tells  us  of  one  of  these  green  grasshoppers,  on  the  Lower 
Amazons,  whose  notes  were  the  loudest  and  most  extra- 
ordinary of  any  orthopterous  insect  he  ever  heard.  Its 
native  name,  Tanana,  is  in  allusion  to  its  music.  The 
natives  keep  it  in  small  wicker  cages  for  the  sake  of  its 
song.  The  loud  note  of  one  could  be  heard  from  one 
end  of  the  village  to  the  other. 


GREEN  GRASSHOPPERS  (LOCUSTID&).  149 


Katydids. 

Amid  the  teeming  exuberant  insect  orchestra  of  the 
American  fields  in  autumn  may  be  heard  the  notes  of 
the  Katydids,  the  most  notorious  of  the  singing  Locustids 
— essentially  American.  There  are  several  species  of 
them — they  belong,  indeed,  to  several  genera — but  the 
song  of  all  is  supposed  to  suggest,  more  or  less,  the 
words  of  their  popular  name.  Katy-did,  katy-did,  or, 
with  variations,  "  O-she-did,  katy-did-she-did,"  vociferates 
the  garrulous  "  testy  little  dogmatist."  Green  leapers 
from  leaf  to  leaf  and  from  branch  to  branch,  they  might 
far  more  appropriately  be  called  tree-vaulters  than 
grasshoppers.  Riley  thus  describes  the  music  of  the 
Angular-winged  Katydid,  Microcentrum  retinerve,  the 
commonest  species  in  the  Western  and  Southern  States  : 
"  The  first  notes  from  this  katydid  are  heard  about  the 
middle  of  July,  and  the  species  is  in  full  song  by  the  first 
of  August.  The  wing-covers  are  partially  opened  by  a 
sudden  jerk,  and  the  notes  produced  by  the  gradual 
closing  of  the  same.  The  song  consists  of  a  series  of 
from  twenty-five  to  thirty  raspings,  as  of  a  stiff  quill 
drawn  across  a  coarse  file.  There  are  about  five  of 
these  raspings  or  trills  per  second,  all  alike,  and  with 
equal  intervals,  except  the  last  two  or  three,  which,  with 
the  closing  of  the  wing-covers,  run  into  each  other. 


150  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE   INSECTS. 

The  whole  strongly  recalls  the  slow  turning  of  a  child's 
wooden  rattle,  ending  by  a  sudden  jerk  of  the  same." 

From  the  setting  of  the  sun  till  he  begins  to  shed  his 
rays  in  the  East,  these  noisy  choristers,  during  their 
most  active  period,  will  have  it,  with  never  an  hour's  re- 
mission, that  "  Katy  did  " — the  species  being  so  numerous 
that  the  sound  as  it  comes  from  the  woods  is  one  pro- 
longed rattling.  Scudder  states  that  these  katydids  sing 
both  by  day  and  night,  but  their  day  song  differs  from 
that  of  the  night.  "  On  a  summer's  day  it  is  curious  to 
observe  these  little  creatures  suddenly  changing  from  the 
day  to  the  night  song  at  the  mere  passing  of  a  cloud, 
and  returning  to  the  old  note  when  the  sky  is  clear.  By 
imitating  the  two  songs  in  the  daytime,  the  grasshoppers 
can  be  made  to  respond  to  either  at  will ;  at  night,  they 
have  but  one  note." 


These  Insects  make  quite  Interesting  Pets. 

As  with  the  species  of  the  Amazon  valley,  they  make 
interesting  pets  ;  they  are  even  susceptible  to  domestica- 
tion to  a  slight  extent.  Commendably  neat  in  their 
ways,  one  of  the  most  curious  habits  is  an  incessant 
polishing  of  the  wings,  legs,  and  antennae.  Riley  says 
At.  retinerve  brushes  its  face  over  with  the  front  legs, 
just  as  a  cat  washes  herself  with  her  fore  paws,  and  bestows 


GREEN  GRASSHOPPERS  (LOCUSTID^}.  153 

as  much  care  on  its  long,  graceful  antennae  as  many  a 
maiden  does  upon  her  abundant  tresses,  the  antennae 
being  drawn  between  the  jaws  and  smoothed  by  the 
palpi,  with  evident  satisfaction.  But,  in  time,  in  his  ex- 
perience, confinement  produces  disastrous  effects.  He 
reared  three  successive  broods  in  captivity,  and,  after  the 
first  year,  the  insects  gradually  deteriorated,  so  that  the 
eggs  of  the  third  generation — the  fourth  spring — failed 
to  hatch. 

These  katydids  feed  upon  the  foliage  of  the  trees 
which  they  inhabit,  but  are  rarely  injurious  to  plants  : 
Locustidae  are  less  exclusively  herbivorous  than  the 
Acridiidae  are  ;  many  seem  to  partake  of  a  mixed  diet. 
A  large  number  are  believed  to  be  entirely  carnivorous, 
fewer  to  be  solely  phytophagous.  It  occasionally  hap- 
pens that  they  increase  to  large  numbers  in  Europe, 
and  in  America  in  the  case  of  a  member  of  the  genus 
Anabrus,  which  is  sometimes  destructive  to  crops. 


The  Tegmina  resemble  Leaves. 

Many  insects  of  this  family  are  of  a  green  colour,  in 
assimilation  to  that  of  their  habitat ;  the  green  of 
Locusta  viridissima  is  wonderfully  similar  to  that  of 
the  herbage  amongst  which  it  lives.  The  wing-covers 
in  many  present  a  most  singular  resemblance  to  leaves, 


i54  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

colour,  veining,  shape,  and  appearance  generally, 
being  very  leaf-like.  Katydids  have  beautiful  green 
and  opaque  fore-wings,  like  the  leaves  of  trees,  and 
display  characteristic  leaf-like  veinings,  which  afford 
them  protection  from  observation,  and  thus  safety. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  plant-like  appearance 
of  some  of  the  Locustidae  renders  it  most  difficult  to 
detect  them  in  their  native  haunts.  It  is  well  known 
how  these  insects  may  attest  their  presence  in  con- 
siderable numbers  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  by 
their  song,  and  yet  it  may  be  almost  impossible  to 
succeed  in  tracing  the  sound,  to  its  source,  even  in  a 
single  instance. 

This  resemblance  of  the  tegmina  to  leaves  is  carried 
to  the  highest  possible  pitch  of  perfection  in  Locustidae. 
It  is  in  the  exotic  genus  Pterochroza,  of  South  America, 
that  the  phenomenon  is  most  marked  (see  Fig.  24). 
The  tegmina  in  the  species  of  this  genus,  in  form  and 
in  tint,  look  exactly  like  withered  leaves.  In  some  of 
the  species  the  wing-covers  not  only  display  the  different 
shades  of  colour  of  dry  leaves,  but  markings  due  to 
cryptogamic  growths  on  leaves  are  reproduced.  Not 
only  this,  transparent  spots  and  tracks  are  present,  like 
those  on  leaves  due  to  the  mining  of  insects.  When 
settled,  their  tegmina  closed,  such  insects  are  provided 
with  perfect  disguise. 

Nor  is  this  family  entirely  destitute  of  active  means 


GREEN  GRASSHOPPERS  (LOCUSTID^).  155 

of  defence.  For  some,  like  the  Phasmidae,  there  is  a 
more  direct  safeguard  than  mimicry.  The  Algerian 
E ug aster  guy onii,  if  seized,  ejects  two  jets  of  an  orange- 
coloured  caustic  liquid  from  two  pores  situate  on  the 
sides  of  the  mesosternum,  and  behind  the  coxae  of  the 
front  legs.  A  second,  though  feebler,  discharge  can  be 
made,  and  sometimes  a  third  ;  but  then  it  has  generally 
exhausted  its  store,  and  some  time  must  elapse  ere  it 
has  the  defensive  fluid  again  at  command.  This  species 
may  sometimes  be  heard  making  a  low,  brief  sound, 
unlike  ordinary  forms  of  stridulation. 

Some  Locustidae  present  a  resemblance  to  Phasmidee ; 
this,  however,  has  only  been  found  in  a  few  species. 
The  long  slender  form  and  hind  legs  and  long  narrow 
tegmina  give  Prochilus  australis  a  great  resemblance 
to  some  of  the  winged  Phasmidse ;  while  another 
Locustid,  native  to  Australia,  from  its  long  and  linear 
body  and  the  entire  absence  of  alar  organs,  looks  like 
an  apterous  Walking-Stick.  Saussure  calls  attention  to 
the  slender  stick-like  forms  in  the  genus  Peringueyella 
of  South  Africa.  This  genus  belongs  to  the  tribe 
Sagides  ;  and,  at  first  sight,  one  might  almost  mistake 
their  extraordinary  appearance  for  that  of  some 
Tryxalides. 


156  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 


Cave  Dwellers. 

There  are  other  species  particularly  interesting  for 
their  strange  habit  of  dwelling  in  caves.  Whether  found 
in  the  celebrated  Mammoth  and  other  caves  of  Kentucky, 
in  New  Zealand,  or  in  Europe,  they  have  a  great  general 
resemblance.  Look  at  the  enormously  long  antennae  and 
legs  of  Dolichopoda  palpata,  and  its  complete  absence  of 
wings  (see  Fig.  25). 

Many  of  the  largest  and  most  singular  forms  of 
Locustidae  are  distinguished  for  their  constantly  apterous 
condition,  and  these  often  have  an  unprepossessing 
aspect.  The  curious  genus  Anostostoma,  with  large 
head,  and  immensely  developed  mouth,  armed  with 
gigantic  mandibles,  certainly  does  not  fall  behind  the 
rest  in  this  respect. 


Of  the  Curious  Genus  Deinacrida. 

Allied  to  it  are  the  interesting  Wetas,  a  group 
inhabiting  New  Zealand.  Deinacrida  heteracantha,  the 
great  forest  Weta,  the  "  Weta-punga "  of  the  New 
Zealand  natives,  is  a  remarkable  insect.  Formerly  it 
was  very  abundant  in  the  woods  north  of  Auckland, 
but  of  late  years  has  become  extremely  rare,  the  Maoris 


GREEN  GRASSHOPPERS  (LOCUSTID&).  157 

attributing  its  extermination  to  the  introduced  Norway 
rat.  This  giant  species  may  measure  over  two  and  a 
half  inches  in  length,  and  when  the  hind  legs  and 
antennae  are  stretched  out,  it  may  be  more  than  fourteen 
inches.  Probably  it  subsists  chiefly  on  the  green  leaves 
of  trees  and  shrubs ;  Sir  W.  Duller  remembers,  in 
riding  between  Mangakahia  and  Whangarei,  having 
caught  a  pair  of  Wetas  on  a  low  tree,  where  they 
seemed  to  be  feeding  on  the  young  leaves.  Although 
bulky  and  wingless,  yet,  as  he  tells  us,*  the  insect 
climbs  with  agility,  and  is  sometimes  found  on  the 
topmost  branches  of  lofty  trees.  When  disturbed  it 
produces  a  clicking  noise,  accompanied  by  a  slow  move- 
ment of  the  hind  legs.  "  When  taken  it  kicks  or  strikes 
backwards  with  its  long  hind  legs,  which  are  armed 
with  double  rows  of  sharp  spurs ;  and  unless  dexterously 
seized  will  not  fail  to  punish  the  offender's  hand,  the  prick 
of  its  spurs  causing  an  unpleasant  stinging  sensation." 
Killing  them,  so  as  not  to  injure  the  specimens,  is 
difficult ;  and  in  one  instance  an  attempt  was  made  to 
drown  a  specimen  in  cold  water,  but  it  was  found,  after 
four  days'  immersion,  as  lively  and  active  as  ever. 

A  smaller  species,  D.  thoracica,  lives  in  decayed 
wood,  into  which  it  bores ;  and  a  third,  D.  megacephala, 
is  characterized  by  a  head  and  mandibles  of  exaggerated 
size  in  the  male. 

*  Zoologist,  1867  ;    Trans.  N.  Zeal.  Inst.,  1894,  vol.  xxvii. 


158  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 

A  perfectly  new  species  (D.  brought] ,  from  Nelson, 
was  reported  in  1895.  Apparently,  it  frequents  dense 
forests,  and  lives  by  eating  the  heart  of  red-birch  trees  ; 
it  forms  great  tunnels,  with  enlargements  or  chambers, 
in  the  growing  timber.  Judging  by  the  ways  and 
doings  of  one  of  these  Wetas  in  captivity,  it  is  nocturnal 
in  its  habits  ;  it  became  quite  lively  at  night,  and  at 
times  emitted  a  chattering  kind  of  sound,  which  may 
be  heard  at  night  in  the  woods.  It  could  bite  fiercely, 
and,  when  excited,  could  hiss  like  an  adder.  Mr. 
Brough  *  found  his  captive  Weta  would  eat  nuts,  and 
occasionally  a  little  bark  ;  but  he  could  never  induce  it 
to  feed  by  day.  It  could  apparently,  however,  see 
perfectly  well  in  the  daylight. 

As  to  the  strange  large  insect  Schizodactylus  mon- 
strosus  (see  Frontispiece),  very  little  is  known.  The 
wings,  which  have  their  extremities  much  prolonged 
and  curled,  are  a  sufficiently  remarkable  feature ;  and 
it  has  no  ocelli,  and  is  believed  to  be  wanting  in  ears. 
It  is  found  in  India,  where  it  is  said  to  be  common  in 
burrows  by  river  banks,  and  has  been  recently  reported 
as  injuring  young  tobacco  and  other  crops  growing  on 
high  ground  in  Durbhunga,  by  cutting  their  roots.  The 
local  name  given  for  the  insect  was  bherwa. 

*   Tr.  N.  Zeal.  Inst.,  1895. 


GREEN  GRASSHOPPERS  (LOCUSTID^E}.  159 


Eu  megalodon  idee. 

Amongst  the  most  remarkable  of  the  Locustidae  are 
the  species  now  forming  the  genus  Eumegalodon,  and 
the  tribe  Eumegalodonidse.  The  ovipositor  is  long  and 
sabre-shaped  ;  the  legs  seem  hardly  in  keeping  with  the 
heavy  insect ;  the  thighs  indicate  its  addiction  to  climb- 
ing rather  than  to  leaping  exclusively  (see  Fig.  26).  It 
was  Brongniart  who  changed  the  name  Megalodon  into 
Eumegalodon  ;  the  genus  Megalodon  is  placed  by  some 
naturalists  among  the  curious  Conocephalides. 


LEPIDOPTERA 


M 


CHAPTER    VIII. 


P'IG.  27. 

The   Fable, 

WHAT  measure  could  mete  our  indebtedness  to  Apuleius 
for  his  charming  story — one  of  the  loveliest  myths  of 
later  antiquity — of  the  union  of  Cupid  and  Psyche  ? 
Apuleius  introduces  it  into  a  playful  satire  on  the  follies 
and  vices  of  the  day,  consisting  of  an  elaborate  romance, 
the  "  Metamorphoses,"  or  "  Golden  Ass,"  so  called  pro- 
bably from  its  affinity  to  the  "  Ass  "  of  Lucian,  the  epithet 
"  Golden "  being  added  as  a  mark  of  admiration  ;  but 


1 64  TRUE   TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

the  best  known,  and  by  far  the  most  beautiful,  of  the 
numerous  episodes  with  which  the  work  is  interspersed, 
the  fable  of  Psyche,  is  not  derived  from  any  source 
with  which  we  are  at  present  acquainted.  Again  the 
pretty  tale,  which,  with  seeming  incongruity,  is  placed 
in  the  mouth  of  an  old  hag,  will  bear  re-telling. 

There  lived  in  a  certain  city  of  Crete  a  king  and 
queen,  who  had  three  fair  daughters.  The  two  elder 
were  deemed  worthy  of  the  praises  of  mankind,  and 
were  early  wedded  to  suitors  befitting  their  rank  ;  but 
the  exquisite  and  inaccessible  beauty  of  the  youngest 
sister  could  neither  be  expressed  nor  sufficiently  ap- 
plauded by  the  poverty  of  human  speech,  and  at  length 
the  crowds  which  collected  in  her  honour  from  far  and 
near,  overcome  with  admiration,  worshipped  her  as 
Venus  herself.  Venus' s  temples  were  abandoned,  her 
ceremonies  neglected,  her  images  uncrowned,  and  her 
desolate  altars  defiled  with  ashes,  while  a  girl  was 
supplicated  in  her  stead.  Inflamed  with  jealousy,  and 
raging  high,  that  goddess  commands  her  son  of  the 
flames  and  arrows  to  avenge  the  insult,  and  punish 
Psyche — for  such  was  the  name  of  the  girl — by  inspiring 
her  with  an  infatuation  for  some  despicable  mortal, 
and  Cupid — 

"  Had  still  no  thought  but  to  do  all  her  will, 
Nor  cared  to  think  if  it  were  good  or  ill : 
So  beautiful  and  pitiless  he  went. 


FIG.  28.— The  dragon's  bride. 


SYMBOLS   OF  PSYCHE.  167 

And  toward  him  still  the  blossomed  fruit-trees  leant, 
And  after  him  the  wind  crept  murmuring, 
And  on  the  boughs  the  birds  forgot  to  sing."  * 

But  when  he  saw  Psyche,  he  fell  in  love  with  her. 

In  the  mean  time  her  father,  fearing — since,  in  spite  of 
her  renowned  and  glorious  beauty,  she  remained  unasked 
in  marriage — that  she  had  in  some  way  incurred  the  dis- 
pleasure of  the  gods,  consulted  the  oracle  of  Apollo,  and 
was  directed  to  prepare  his  daughter  for  deadly  nuptials  : 
clothed  in  mourning  garments,  she  must  be  led  to  a 
rock,  there  to  become  the  bride  of  a  dragon.  Words 
fail  to  describe  the  anguish  of  her  parents,  who,  day 
after  day,  delay  the  execution  of  the  sentence ;  the 
whole  city  laments ;  but  at  last  the  sad  procession  sets 
out,  and  Psyche  is  left  alone,  weeping  and  trembling 
on  the  destined  spot.  Each  moment  may  see  the  arrival 
of  the  monster ;  but  lo !  gentle  breezes  raise  her,  and 
waft  her  to  valley,  leaving  her  softly  reclining  on  a  bank 
of  dewy  grass. 

When  she  opens  her  eyes,  she  espies  a  royal  palace, 
full  in  every  part  of  gold  and  silver  and  gems,  precious 
beyond  all  price— a  very  abode  for  a  god.  Here  she 
resides,  waited  upon  by  invisible  servants  ;  she  has  but 
to  wish  for  refreshment  and  instantly  banquets  appear 
before  her ;  a  singer  sings  to  her,  but  is  unseen  ;  an 
invisible  musician  plays ;  and  she  has  a  husband,  who 

*  W.  Morris,  "  Earthly  Paradise." 


i68  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE   INSECTS. 

invariably  leaves  her  before  the  morning  light ;  she  has 
never  beheld  him,  nor  heard  his  name,  and  is  threatened 
with  dire  calamity  should  she  attempt  to  inquire  con- 
cerning the    person  of  her    lover.       But  after  a   while 
Psyche's  heart  yearns  towards  her  family,  and  she  begs 
that  she  may  receive  the  visits  of  her  sisters.     At  first 
the  sisters  are  content  to  embrace  and  rejoice  over  her 
whom   they  had    believed    to    be    dead,    but   soon    the 
gorgeousness    of   her   surroundings,    her   good    fortune 
as  compared  with  theirs,  aroused  within  them  feelings 
of  envy,  hatred,   and    malice ;    "  I    am    not  a  woman," 
exclaimed  one,    "  nor  do    I    breathe    if   I    do  not   hurl 
her  headlong  from  such  mighty  possessions  ; "  and  they 
agree  to  unite  to  accomplish  this.     Repeatedly  is  Psyche 
warned  to    beware   her  of  their    perfidy.      But  Psyche 
is  simple,  of  a  loving  and  pliant  disposition,  no  match 
for   her   sharp-witted,   determined   sisters.      Simulating 
their  base  designs  under  an  appearance  of  great  affection, 
they  entrap  her  into  what  amounts  to  a  confession  of 
ignorance  of  her  husband,  and  induce  her,  by  insinuation, 
to  behold  his  countenance.     Silently,  at  dead  of  night, 
she  steals  to  the  side  of  his  couch,  a  lamp  in  her  hand, 
and  a  razor,  to  cut  off  the  head  of  the  monster  that  she 
has  been   persuaded  to  expect.     To  her  startled  eyes 
no  monster  is  revealed,  but  the  beautiful  god  Cupid. 

The    razor  drops    from     her    powerless    hand,    and, 
terrified  and  shaking  in  every  limb,  she  sinks  fainting 


SYMBOLS   OF  PSYCHE. 


169 


on  the  ground,  until  gradually  the  consciousness  of  the 
amazing  beauty  and  radiance  of  the  god  revives  her. 
There,  at  the  foot  of  the  bed,  lie  his  bow  and  arrows, 
which  Psyche  grasps  with  eager  curiosity,  and  drawing 
one  of  the  arrows  from  the  quiver,  touches  the  point 
with  the  tip  of  her  finger  to  try  its  sharpness,  inadver- 
tently piercing  her  flesh ;  and  thus  ignorant  Psyche 


FIG.  29.  —  Hetaira  esmeralda,  from  Brazil  :  a  clear-wing  Butterfly. 

voluntarily  fell  in  love  with  Love.  But  now,  suddenly, 
the  lamp  throws  out  a  drop  of  hot  oil  on  the  right 
shoulder  of  the  god.  Cupid  burnt,  awakes,  leaps  from 


170 


TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 


the  bed,  disengages  himself  from  her  clinging  arms,  and 
after  reproaching  her  bitterly  for  her  forfeited  fidelity, 

springs  with  his 
pinions  on  high, 
and  vanishes 
from  the  sight  of 
his  most  u  n  - 
happy  wife. 

Now  follow 
Psyche's  wan- 
derings and 
trials.  I  n  c  o  n  - 
solable,  knowing 
no  rest,  she  is 
driven  about 
from  place  to 
place  seeking 
her  beloved,  her 
desire  of  finding  him  increasing  with  the  difficulty  of 
the  search  ;  then  hope  changing  to  despair,  even  of  her 
own  safety,  she  casts  herself  on  the  mercy  of  Venus  : 
perchance  she  may  meet  him  in  the  house  of  his 
mother.  "At  length,"  cries  she,  "have  you  thought 
proper  to  come  and  pay  your  respects  to  your  mother-in- 
law  !  But  take  courage,  for  your  reception  will  be  such 
as  a  good  mother-in-law  ought  to  give  ; "  thereupon  her 
servants  Solicitude  and  Sorrow  scourge  and  otherwise 


FIG.  30. — The  Calliper  Butterfly  (Charaxes  kadenii}, 
from  Java  :  sucking  liquid  from  a  muddy  spot. 


\ 


FIG.  31. — Morpho  menelaus,  from  tropical  America.     Brilliant  metallic  blue  and  black. 


SYMBOLS   OF  PSYCHE.  173 

torment  the  miserable  girl,  and,  laughing  and  scoffing, 
she  flies  upon  her,  rending  her  garments,  tearing  her 
hair,  and  beating  her,  and  subsequently  sets  her  a  series 
of  impossible  tasks,  all  of  which  Psyche  accomplishes  by 
extraneous  aid ;  but  there  was  no  appeasing  the  ire  of 
the  enraged  goddess.  "  There  is  one  more  labour,  my 
dear,  that  you  ought  to  perform,"  said  she,  with  a  sinister 
smile.  To  the  realms  of  the  Shades  Psyche  must  go, 
to  fetch  a  casket  from  Proserpine.  Psyche  is  sensible 
that  her  last  hour  has  come.  Again,  however,  miraculous 
assistance  intervenes,  and  she  has  almost  fulfilled  her 
embassy,  and  is  returning  from  the  infernal  regions,  when 
a  rash  curiosity  seizes  her  to  open  the  box,  from  which 
issues  a  deadly  sleep,  and  she  falls  down  motionless,  in 
appearance  a  corpse. 

Cupid  could  contain  himself  no  longer,  but  flying 
swiftly  to  her,  lovingly  called  her  back  to  life,  then, 
with  rapid  wing,  mounted  to  the  summit  of  heaven,  and 
entreated  mighty  Jupiter  on  his  behalf.  A  meeting  of 
the  Celestials  is  summoned,  before  whom  Jupiter  pro- 
claims it  to  be  his  will  that  Cupid  shall  abide  by  his 
choice,  and  orders  Mercury  to  convey  Psyche  to  heaven  ; 
and  as  soon  as  she  arrived,  extending  to  her  a  cup  of 
ambrosia,  "Take  this,  Psyche,"  he  said,  "and  be  im- 
mortal ;  nor  shall  Cupid  ever  depart  from  thy  embrace, 
but  these  nuptials  of  yours  shall  be  perpetual  ; "  and 
without  delay,  the  wedding  supper  was  served.  And, 


174  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 

by-and-by,  a  daughter  was  born  to  Cupid  and   Psyche, 
whom  we  call  Pleasure. 


The  Origin. 

While  Apuleius  cannot  be  credited  with  the  invention 
of  this  poetically  beautiful  fable,  his  taste  and  feeling 
can  hardly  be  too  highly  commended  for  this  recognition 
of  the  capabilities  of  a  wild  flower  of  folk-lore.  Doubt- 
less the  story  is  adapted  from  an  ancient  popular  legend, 
of  which  traces  are  found  in  most  lands.  Everywhere 
the  central  situations  in  the  tales  are  the  same.  The 
beloved  may  not  be  seen  unveiled,  his  or  her  name  may 
not  be  uttered  ;  but  the  several  taboos  are  always  broken, 
and  the  pair  are  severed,  sometimes  for  ever,  or  a 
reconciliation  is  effected,  after  protracted  searchings  and 
wanderings.  We  may  believe,  with  Mr.  Andrew  Lang, 
that  the  myth  arose  out  of  a  nuptial  custom  and  law 
now  forgotten — probably  among  some  savages  such  a 
custom  actually  exists — the  story  being  evolved  to 
illustrate  and  enforce  the  law ;  and  since  these  singular 
rules  of  etiquette  appear  to  have  been  widely  prevalent, 
there  is  nothing  remarkable  in  the  distribution  of  the 
myth  among  the  most  diverse  races.  The  stories  may 
have  been  separately  invented  in  different  lands,  or  may 
have  been  transmitted  from  people  to  people. 

Into  the  myth  Apuleius  infuses  an  allegorical  purport, 


SYMBOLS   OF  PSYCHE.  175 

entirely  in  accordance  with  the  Platonic  philosophy. 
Long  before  the  beginning  of  the  Roman  Empire,  the 
Platonic  myth  of  the  fallen  soul,  who  undergoes  a  series 
of  trials  as  a  means  of  purification,  to  fit  it  for  its  mystic 
union  with  Love  Everlasting,  seems  to  have  taken  a 
great  hold  on  the  public  mind  in  Greece,  and  was  a  well- 
known  and  favourite  subject  with  celebrated  sculptors 
and  engravers  of  gems.  Psyche  signifies  the  soul,  which 
was  at  first  symbolized  as  a  butterfly,  but  like  other 
animal  symbols,  this  of  Psyche  was  gradually  merged 
into  the  human  form,  that  of  a  slender  girl,  the  wings 
only  being  retained  to  mark  its  meaning.  The  gem 
engravers  exhibit  infinite  fertility  of  invention  in  depict- 
ing scenes  played  by  Love  and  the  Soul.  In  some 
devices,  probably  the  oldest,  Cupid  appears  alone, 
chasing,  tormenting,  or  caressing  the  butterfly ;  Psyche 
in  proprid  persona  he  continually  treats  with  harshness 
and  indignity,  or  the  lovers  meet,  showing  by  tenderest 
caresses  delight  at  the  reunion,  or  are  united  in  marriage  ; 
in  sculpture  they  clasp  each  other  in  close  embrace,  as 
in  the  group  of  the  Capitol.  We  know  that  Apuleius 
travelled  in  Greece,  chiefly  to  acquire  religious  infor- 
mation, and,  clearly,  these  ideas  and  representations 
were  of  a  nature  to  afford  subject  -  matter  for  his 
imaginative  genius  to  work  upon  in  the  construction 
of  his  story. 


176  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 


Conspicuous  Beauty  and  Abundance  of  the  Symbols. 

Than  the  Butterfly  the  world  offers  no  illustration 
of  the  soul  more  striking,  for  it  bursts  in  beauty  on 
the  wing  from  a  dull,  lowly  chrysalis,  its  previous  death- 
like stage,  a  lively  image  of  the  soul,  freed  and  purified 
from  material  things. 

Almost  needless  to  say,  butterflies  are  the  most 
beautiful  of  all  insects,  in  fact,  for  gorgeousness  of  attire, 
as  a  whole,  they  have  scarcely  a  rival  in  the  animal 
world  ;  many  may  be  likened  in  splendour  to  animated 
flowers.  In  the  equatorial  regions  they  constitute  one 
of  the  most  prominent  and  constant  displays  of  animal 
life.  Their  abundance,  their  conspicuous  hues,  their 
size,  as  well  as  their  peculiarities  of  shape  and  habits, 
all  conspire  to  arrest  the  attention  of  the  least  observant 
of  mortals.  In  the  vicinity  of  old  towns,  both  in  the 
East  and  West,  they  are  especially  plentiful,  and  love 
to  sport  along  roads  and  pathways  in  forests.  Descrip- 
tion can  give  no  adequate  idea  of  their  rich  and  dazzling 
colours.  Intense  blues  there  are,  satiny  greens,  gor- 
geous crimsons,  fiery  orange,  golden  yellows ;  not  in 
small  spots  and  patches,  but  in  great  masses,  ofttimes 
contrasted  by  deep  velvety  black.  We  see  wings 
spangled  with  metallic  green,  others  literally  glitter 
with  spots  and  markings  as  of  molten  gold  or  silver ; 


SYMBOLS   OF  PSYCHE.  177 

some  have  changeable  hues,  like  shot  silk  ;  and  several 
are  as  transparent  as  glass,  as  the  Hetaira  esmeralda, 
whose  clear  wings  have  but  one  spot  of  opaque  colour, 
of  a  violet  and  rose  hue  (see  Fig.  29). 

The  expanse  of  wing  is  not  uncommonly  six  to  eight 
inches  in  the  Ornithoptera,  or  Bird-wings,  so-called  ; 
the  largest,  the  most  magnificent,  the  most  perfect  of 
butterflies,  the  wonder  of  the  Eastern  tropics.  To  the 
family  Morphidse  appertain  the  largest  and  most  splendid 
of  the  South  American  kinds.  Their  wings,  often  seven 
inches  across,  are  usually  of  a  brilliant  metallic  blue,  and 
as  the  insect  flies,  the  lustrous  surface  flashes  in  the  sun- 
light, so  that  it  is  visible  a  quarter  of  a  mile  off.  Slowly 
and  majestically,  the  noble  creatures  sail  through  the 
forest  glades,  only  flapping  their  wings  at  considerable 
intervals,  or  float  at  a  good  height,  rarely  descending 
nearer  the  ground  than  twenty  feet,  rendering  them  an 
almost  unattainable  prize  in  a  forest  country  ;  in  the 
mountainous  districts  of  New  Granada  and  Ecuador 
they  are  captured  with  long  nets,  the  collectors  being 
sometimes  let  down  by  ropes  over  the  edges  of  the  pre- 
cipices. A  notion  of  the  immense  variety  of  butterfly 
life  in  the  equatorial  zone  may  be  gained  from  the  fact, 
that  no  fewer  than  seven  hundred  species  actually  exist 
within  an  hour's  walk  of  Para  in  Brazil  ;  while  in  Britain 
there  are  only  sixty-six,  and  in  the  whole  of  Europe 
three  hundred  and  ninety  species. 


i78 


TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 


Favourite  Resorts. 

Oddly  enough,  in  the  tropics,  damp  open  places,  espe- 
cially river- banks  and  margins  of  pools,  during  the  hottest 

part  of  the  day, 
are  favourite  re- 
sorts of  these 
children  of  the 
sun.  Thirsty  by 
nature,  they  con- 
gregate in  abso- 
lutely countless 
numbers  on  the 
wet  sand  or  gra- 
vel, to  suck  up 
the  moisture. 
Often  it  is  im- 
possible to  walk 
far  without  dis- 
turbing flocks  of 
every  variety  of  size  and  colour  thus  refreshing  them- 
selves, and  at  our  approach  they  flutter  up  into  the 
air  from  before  our  feet.  In  Nicaragua,  groups  may 
be  observed  of  fine  Swallow-tails  (Papilio),  greedily 
imbibing  the  water,  and  quivering  their  wings  as  they 
drink,  and  pretty  blue  Hair- streaks  (Theclae),  which, 


FlG.  32. — Cher ilra  jaffra,  brown  with  white  tails, 
from  Burmah. 


SYMBOLS   OF  PSYCHE.  j;9 

when  they  alight,  have  the  strange  habit  of  rub- 
bing their  wings  together,  keeping  the  curious  tail-like 
appendages  continually  moving  up  and  down.  At  many 
spots  in  tropical  America  sulphur- yellow  and  orange- 
coloured  kinds  (Callidryas)  are  very  common,  gathering 
in  dense  masses,  their  wings  all  held  in  the  upright  posi- 
tion, looking  like  bouquets  on  the  ground,  and  when 
roused  dissolving,  as  it  were,  into  fountains  of  flowers  ; 
in  association  with  white,  or  with  brown  and  red  butter- 
flies, they  represent,  in  the  most  deceptive  manner,  choice 
beds  of  flowers  on  the  moist  sand. 

With   few   exceptions,   these  gaily   tinted   assemblies 


FIG.  33.— Different  females  of  the  Malayan  Papilio  memnon. 

which  indulge  in  this  sunshiny  life  are  males,  their 
spouses,  which  are  more  soberly  dressed,  and  far  less 
numerous,  remaining  hid  within  the  forest  shades,  where 
every  afternoon,  as  the  sun  goes  down,  the  gaudy  dandies 
join  them. 

Butterflies    are    occasionally    migratory    as    well    as 


i8o  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE   INSECTS. 

gregarious,  and  the  hordes  seem  always  to  travel  in 
one  direction,  to  south-south-east,  a  fact  throwing  no 
light,  rather  the  reverse,  on  these  very  unintelligible 
circumstances. 


Twilight  Fliers. 

While  some  butterflies,  usually  of  a  dark  colour,  avoid 
the  sun,  by  haunting  the  gloomiest  recesses  of  the  forest, 
others  are  crepuscular,  issuing  forth  just  after  sunset,  and 
flitting  about  in  the  dusk.  Found  both  in  the  East 
India  Isles  and  in  America,  these  are  true  twilight 
fliers,  appearing  never  to  wander  at  night  in  the  moon- 
light, or  to  enter  lighted  rooms  as  the  Night- Moths, 
although,  like  the  latter,  they  repose  all  day.  So  much 
for  the  universal  influence  of  the  warmth  of  the  sun  on 
the  flight  of  butterflies  ! 

'v 
A   Quarrelsome  Disposition. 

Perhaps,  also,  we  take  too  much  for  granted  the  mild, 
peaceable  disposition,  the  defencelessness,  the  irrational 
character  of  the  butterfly.  A  company  will  drive  away 
and  pursue  for  a  short  distance  a  large  member  of  their 
kind  which  comes  nigh  their  favourite  resting-  or  feed- 
ing-places, assuring  themselves  that  the  intruder  has 


SYMBOLS   OF  PSYCHE.  181 

really  departed  ere  returning  to  their  interrupted  business. 
Doubtless  they  object  to  the  addition  of  a  guest  at  their 
feast  whose  appetite  in  comparison  with  theirs  would  be 
enormous.  "  Every  one  for  himself"  seems  to  be  Nature's 
law  :  "  finding  's  keeping  ;  "  and  "  union  is  strength." 


Peculiarities  of  Highest  Interest. 

Closely  allied  to  the  Ornithoptera,  or  Bird-wings,  is  a 
group  smaller  in  size,  but  equally  brilliant  in  colour,  the 
Papilios,  one  of  the  handsomest  exotic  species  of  which, 
the  Malayan  Papilio  memnon,  with  black  and  blue  wings, 
five  inches  in  expanse,  and  with  the  hind  pair  rounded 
and  gracefully  scalloped,  presents  a  peculiarity  of  highest 
interest — the  remarkable  variety  in  the  form  of  the 
females.  They  may  be  divided  into  two  groups — those 
which  resemble  the  males  in  shape,  though  varying 
much,  as  butterflies  often  do,  in  colour.  The  second 
group  is  most  extraordinary,  and  would  never  be  supposed 
to  be  the  same  insect,  since  they  differ  entirely  in  colour 
and  in  the  outline  of  the  wings,  the  hind  wings  being 
elaborated  into  spoon-shaped  tails,  no  trace  of  which  is 
ever  observed  in  the  males,  or  in  the  ordinary  form  of 
the  females.  In  shape  and  colouring  these  odd  females, 
when  flying,  closely  resemble  another  butterfly  belonging 
to  a  different  section  of  the  same  genus,  Papilio  coon — a 


182 


TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 


case  of  the  wonderful  phenomenon  of  mimicry.     From 
some  cause,  the  butterflies  imitated  seem  exempt  from  the 

attacks  of  birds,  and 
by  imitating  them 
the  female  of  Pa- 
pilio  memnon  also 
eludes  persecution. 
It  is,  indeed,  curious 
that  both  these  dis- 
tinct forms  of  female, 
the  tailed  and  the 
tailless,  are  pro- 
duced from  the  eggs 
of  either  form  (see 

Fig-  S3)- 

Of  precisely  the 
same  nature  as  mi- 
micry are  those 
adaptations  in  which 
the  insect  is  coloured 
and  marked  so  as  to 
represent  the  soil, 
or  some  vegetative 
object,  the  simulated 
appearance  serving  to  conceal  the  creature  from  the 
prying  eyes  of  enemies.  The  under  sides  of  many 
butterflies,  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  exhibit  a  deceptive 


FIG.  34  — A  Leaf-Butterfly  (Kallima  inachis),  in 
flight  and  in  repose. 


SYMBOLS    OF  PSYCHE.  183 

resemblance  to  dead  leaves ;  but  the  best  example, 
perhaps  the  most  perfect  case  of  protective  resemblance 
known,  is  to  be  found  in  the  Indian  butterfly  Kallima 
inachis,  and  its  Malayan  ally,  Kallima  paralekta,  both 
showy  and  conspicuous  insects  on  the  wing,  but  which 
no  sooner  alight  than,  as  if  by  magic,  they  become 
invisible.  Amid  dried  or  dead  leaves,  on  trees  and 
bushes,  it  is  their  habit  to  rest,  and  in  this  position,  with 
the  wings  tightly  pressed  together,  they  form  a  direct 
and  finished  representation  of  a  leaf  in  some  stage  of 
decay.  Colour,  form,  and  habits  all  combine  to  produce 
this  complete  and  marvellous  disguise,  and  the  protec- 
tion it  affords  is  shown  by  the  abundance  of  individuals 
that  possess  it  (see  Fig.  34). 


CHAPTER    IX. 

DAY-FLYING    MOTHS. 


FIG.  35.  —  Urania  Braziliensis ',  migratory,  from  Brazil. 

Lepidoptera  Heterocera  and  Rhopalocera. 

A  POPULAR  division  of  the  Lepidoptera,  or  Scale-wings, 
in  England,  is  into  Butterflies  and  Moths,  the  former 
being  termed  Diurni,  the  latter  Nocturni.  In  most 
continental  languages  one  principal  word  serves  for  the 
two  great  Lepidopterous  groups.  Thus,  papillon  in 
French,  may  stand  for  either  a  butterfly  or  a  moth ;  and 
they  are  distinguished  respectively  as  papillons  de  jour 
and  papillons  de  nuit. 

But  since,  in  fact,  many  of  the  species  of  the  nocturnal 
Lepidoptera  are  day-fliers,   and,  vice  versa,  not  all  the 


DAY-FLYING   MOTHS.  185 

diurnal  Lepidoptera  fly  by  day,  the  habits  of  these 
insects  do  not  seem  to  prove  a  good  basis  for  separation, 
and  in  order  to  avoid  the  misconceptions  produced  by 
the  terms  "  diurna  "  and  "  nocturna,"  Boisduval,  a  French 
entomologist,  proposed  to  substitute  Rhopalocera  (club- 
horns)  for  the  butterflies,  and  Heterocera  (different- 
horns)  for  the  moths. 

At  first  glance  few  distinctions  appear  more  happy 
than  this — few  classifications  more  natural.  It  was  no 
sooner  announced  than  it  was  recognized  as  a  most 
convenient  arrangement,  and  quickly  came  into  general 
use.  It  is  founded  on  the  structure  of  the  antennae, 
often  called  feelers  or  horns,  two  long  jointed  organs 
situated  in  front  of  the  head,  between  the  eyes,  which 
in  this  order  are  always  conspicuous.  A  marked 
thickening  towards  the  end  almost  universally  charac- 
terizes the  antennae  of  the  Rhopalocera.  Such  being 
the  case,  it  is  undoubtedly  a  character  of  primary 
importance.  But  a  certain  family  of  moths  (Sphingidae), 
by  their  antennae  thickening  towards  the  end,  though 
terminating  suddenly  in  a  point,  bring  the  two  groups 
into  near  relationship,  and  lessen  their  value ;  while  the 
most  interesting  Castniidae  and  Uraniidae  (of  which  more 
anon)  so  intimately  connect  them  that  these  families 
have  sorely  perplexed  systematists  as  to  whether  their 
rightful  position  was  with  the  one  group  or  with  the 
other. 


i86  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 

To  be  brief,  our  better  knowledge  than  heretofore  of 
the  Lepidoptera  gives  rise  to  new  views  of  the  antennal 
structure,  and  makes  plain  the  absence  of  any  such  an 
absolute  difference.  On  this  alone — on  the  clubbed  or 
non-clubbed  terminations,  according  to  Boisduval,  or  on 
features  which  other  entomologists  deem  more  worthy 
of  consideration  —  two  primary  divisions  cannot  be 
established. 

In  the  same  way,  the  stout  spine  or  spring  on  the 
hind  wings  of  moths  is  unsatisfactory  as  a  classificatory 
basis.  This  spine  is  furnished  on  the  under  wings,  at 
the  costal  base,  and  being  received  in  a  sort  of  socket 
beneath  the  superior  pair,  maintains  them  in  a  horizontal 
or  somewhat  deflexed  position  in  repose,  and  is  remark- 
ably characteristic  of  the  Heterocera.  But  all  moths  by 
no  means  possess  it,  while  a  butterfly  is  known  armed 
with  this  apparatus. 

In  a  word,  though  we  may  speak  of  Rhopalocerous 
and  of  Heterocerous  characters,  there  is  no  one  character 
which  infallibly  severs  the  two  divisions,  another  instance 
of  the  fact  that  the  naturalist  has  continually  to  face, 
the  necessarily  arbitrary  nature  of  classification.  The 
more  intimate  our  knowledge  of  animal  forms,  past  and 
present,  becomes,  the  more  our  demarcations  give  way 
between  all  classificatory  divisions,  even  from  variety  to 
kingdom.  As  we  arrive  at  a  true  conception  of  the 
relations  of  animals,  we  realize  the  closer  approach  of 


DAY- FLY  ING   MOTHS.  187 

the  different  groups,  until  we  perceive  an  almost  con- 
tinuous chain.  An  observation  of  Kirby  and  Spence  on 
this  point :  "  It  appears  to  be  the  opinion  of  most  modern 
physiologists  that  the  series  of  affinities  in  nature  is  a 
concatenation  or  continuous  series  ;  and  that  though  an 
hiatus  is  here  and  there  observable,  this  has  been  caused 
either  by  the  annihilation  of  some  original  group  or 
species  ...  or  that  the  objects  required  to  fill  it  up  are 
still  in  existence  but  have  not  yet  been  discovered." 
Later-day  naturalists  find  in  these  intermediate  grada- 
tions, or  transition  states,  such  as  I  have  indicated,  and 
others,  their  strongest  argument  for  the  Darwinian 
doctrine  of  community  of  descent. 


The  Abnormal  Collection  of  Pretty  Insects  Castniida. 

Let  us  glance  at  the  curious  and  abnormal  collection  of 
pretty  insects,  Castniidae,  which,  in  some  respects,  com- 
bines the  characters  of  both  Lepidopterous  divisions,  but 
in  modern  opinion  has  most  affinities  with  the  moths  (see 
Fig.  36).  Linnaeus,  and  all  the  writers  of  the  last  century, 
regarded  the  species  of  the  genus  with  which  they  were 
acquainted  as  butterflies,  including  them  in  the  great 
group  Papilio,  on  account  of  the  clubbed  structure  of  their 
antennae.  At  the  beginning  of  the  present  century, 
when  this  group  was  broken  up,  the  genus  Castnia  was 


i88  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 

established  ;  though  Fabricius  still  retained  it  among  the 
butterflies.  But  when  the  antennae  are  carefully  examined, 
they  do  not  exhibit  the  real  Rhopalocerous  structure.  In 
like  manner,  the  Castnians  differ  from  other  groups  of 
Heterocerous  lepidoptera,  in  the  complicated  arrangement 
of  the  veins  of  the  wings,  and  in  various  ways. 

In  general  appearance  they  vary  much,  but,  typically, 
they  have  large  wings,  with  loose  and  remarkably  large 
scales,  and  a  position  in  repose  deflexed  or  incumbent, 
being  furnished  with  a  wing-guide  or  guides ;  and  the 
antennae,  though  club-like  at  the  tip,  are  generally  long 
and  more  or  less  supple.  All  these  characters  are 
constant,  and  are  Heterocerous  characters.  As  a  rule, 
the  head  is  broad,  and  the  body  large  and  somewhat 
pointed.  The  Castnians  resemble  butterflies  in  this 
particular,  in  their  evidently  diurnal  habits,  as  evinced 
by  the  brilliancy  of  their  colours.  They  fly  in  open  day, 
during  the  heat  of  the  sun,  with  incredible  rapidity, 
loving  to  rest  wide-spread  on  the  earth  or  on  trunks  of 
trees,  and  at  certain  hours  pilfering  the  flowers  of  their 
sweets,  and  frequenting  the  inlets  of  thick  forests,  where 
they  rest  occasionally  on  the  tree  trunks,  far  above  the 
ground.  Numerous  species  are  reckoned  within  their 
number,  many  of  large  size,  and  generally  adorned  with 
beautiful  colours,  a  rich  effect  heightened  by  the  metallic 
gloss  of  the  prominent  scales  with  which  most  of  them  are 
covered.  In  respect  of  colour  the  sexes  may  differ  much. 


DAY-FLYING  MOTHS. 


189 


Turning  to  their  preparatory  stages,  the  larvae  are 
endophytous,  boring,  with  strong  mandibles,  the 
interior  of  stems  and  roots  of  cacti,  of  orchids,  and 
other  plants — a  habit  similar  to  that  of  the  caterpillars 

of  the  Hetero- 
cerous  Cossians 
and  Sesians,  but 
which,  though 
found  in  butter- 
flies, is  very 
excep  t  i  on  al. 
Likewise  they 
are  provided 
with  the  ordinary 
horny  piliferous 
spots  or  tu- 
bercles that  cha- 
racterize Hete- 
rocerous  larvae, 
and  have  a 
horny  anal  plate, 
whereas  butter- 
fly larvae  rarely 
possess  these  warts,  but  are  frequently  beset  with 
close-shorn  bristles,  springing  from  the  general  surface, 
or  from  minute  papillae.  In  keeping  with  all  Hete- 
rocerous  borers,  the  pupae  are  supplied  with  minute 


f 


FIG.  36. —  Castnia  eudesmia,  from  Chili. 


igo  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE   INSECTS. 

spines  on  the  hind  borders  of  the  abdominal  joints, 
affording  the  pupa  power  of  executing  the  same 
manoeuvres  as  the  chrysalid  of  Sesia,  enabling  it  to 
move  in  the  tunnel  bored  in  the  tree,  and  assisting  it 
out  of  its  cocoon. 

The  Castniidae  are  essentially  proper  to  the  warm 
equatorial  regions  ;  their  geographical  range,  in  fact, 
extends  only  to  Mexico  and  Central  and  Southern 
America,  while  they  find  their  greatest  development  in 
Central  America  and  Brazil.  The  few  Castnioides,  or 
species  of  Megathymus,  known,  inhabit  the  southern 
portion  of  North  America,  hailing  from  the  Southern 
States,  from  Florida,  and  from  Arizona.  The  genus 
Synemon  appears  to  represent  the  Castniidae  in  the  vast 
continent  of  Australia. 

The  Yucca  Borer. 

Of  these  aberrant  forms  Megathymus  yucca,  the  Yucca 
Borer,  is  one  of  the  most  interesting.  Although  placed 
with  the  Castniidae,  none  the  less  it  has  given  great 
trouble  to  systematists,  having  been  bandied  from  the 
butterflies  to  the  moths ;  and,  it  must  be  owned,  some 
still  regard  it  as  a  genuine  butterfly.  This  species  is 
common  in  the  Gulf  States  of  America  over  extended 
regions,  where  its  larva  commits  serious  depredations, 
of  the  nature  that  its  popular  name  implies. 


DAY-FLYING  MOTHS. 


FIG.  37. — Yucca  borer  (Megathymus  yucca),  in 
flight  and  in  repose ;  from  the  United 
States. 

It  is  a  sad-coloured  moth,  and  rests 
with  wings  elevated — thus  differing  from 
the  typical  Castniidse — its  antennae  gene- 
rally directed  forwards  ;  also  in  smaller 
wings,  in  smaller,  closer  scales,  in  un- 
armed hind-wings,  and  in  stiffer, 
relatively  shorter,  antennae,  it 
diverges  in  character  from  the  Castniidae  (see  Fig.  37). 
Its  flight,  which  is  diurnal,  is  an  extremely  rapid  darting 


1 92  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

motion  as  it  passes  from  plant  to  plant,  principally  in  open 
spots  ;  though  easily  startled,  it  settles  at  no  great  height. 
During  April  and  May,  and  earlier,  it  may  often  be 
seen  in  the  morning  where  the  yuccas  abound,  darting 
hastily  about  after  its  customary  fashion,  on  laying 
thoughts  intent ;  and  as  it  pauses  for  a  few  seconds 
at  one  place,  it  fastens  an  egg  to  some  portion  of  a 
leaf.  The  eggs  are  laid  singly,  though  more  than  one 
may  be  put  on  the  same  leaf.  They  are  subconical, 
smooth,  and  broader  than  high,  pale  green  at  first, 
changing  to  buff-yellow  or  brown.  From  the  egg 
shortly  hatches  the  larva—a  reddish-brown  creature  with 
pitchy-black  head — which  shelters  itself  in  a  web  between 
some  of  the  young  terminal  leaves.  Usually  it  starts 
proceedings  near  the  tip  of  a  leaf,  working  gradually 
downwards,  eating  the  while,  and  rolling  and  shrivelling 
the  blade  as  it  goes.  It  lives  thus  among  the  leaves  till 
about  one-fourth  grown,  when  it  enters  the  trunk,  com- 
mencing the  devastation  for  which  it  is  famed.  Along 
the  axis  the  trunk  becomes  bored  and  tunnelled  out  into 
a  cylindrical  burrow,  wherein  the  larva  makes  its  home, 
extending  often  two  or  more  feet  below  the  ground, 
and  at  its  upper  end  lined  with  silk,  generally  inter- 
mingled with  a  white,  glistening,  powdery  material,  soapy 
to  touch,  and  analogous  with  that  of  Hymenopterous 
and  many  Homopterous  larvae.  At  what  stage  of  larval 
development  this  powder  is  secreted  is  not  known, 


DAY-FLYING   MOTHS.  193 

but  the  full-grown  larva  is  always  covered  with  it  more 
or  less  copiously,  and  doubtless  it  protects  the  invader 
against  the  mucilaginous  liquor  which  the  yucca  freely 
exudes  on  maceration.  How  many  larval  moults  occur 
has  not  been  ascertained,  but  the  insect  continues  in 
larva  till  subsequent  late  winter  or  spring,  and  during 
the  coldest  weather  probably  lies  in  a  semi-torpid  con- 
dition at  the  bottom  of  the  burrow. 

The  funnel-like  tube  outside  the  burrow,  made  by 
the  twisting  and  webbing  together  of  the  tender  leaves 
when  partially  devoured,  is  quite  characteristic  of  the 
larva  of  Yuccse.  The  tube  is,  indeed,  built  and  extended 
often  several  inches  beyond  the  trunk  or  stem.  From 
it  the  builder,  especially  when  young,  emerges  to  feed, 
and  the  small  amount  of  matter  besides  silk  used  in 
its  construction — the  remnants  of  leaves  and  such-like 
substances — have  been  obtained  and  worked  into  the 
exterior  from  the  outside.  Pupation  generally  takes 
place  at  the  top  of  the  burrow,  just  below  the  funnel- 
like  projection,  but  without  the  preparation  of  a  well- 
formed  cocoon.  The  pupa  is  of  a  brown-black,  turning 
paler  on  the  abdomen  ;  all  its  members  are  distinctly 
denned,  and,  like  the  mature  larva,  it  is  more  or  less 
densely  covered  with  a  white  powdery  bloom.  In  due 
time  the  pupa  skin  is  rent,  and  the  imago  issues. 


i94  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 


The  Brilliant  Uraniidce. 

It  has  long  been  a  problem  with  systematic  writers 
what  is  the  true  situation  in  nature  of  the  highly 
interesting  group  of  insects  Uraniidae.  Linnaeus  regarded 
the  more  typical  species  as  butterflies,  placing  them  in  his 
great  group  called  Papilio,  containing  the  whole  of  the 
day-flying  Lepidoptera ;  Fabricius,  who  divided  the 
Lepidoptera  into  genera,  even  placed  the  genus  Urania 
at  the  head  of  the  order,  followed  by  the  other  genera 
of  butterflies.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  Urania  may 
now  be  considered  as  the  type  of  the  family  Uraniidae, 
the  genus  Urania,  in  more  recent  times,  having  been 
split  up  into  smaller  genera.  All  detail  must  be 
omitted  of  the  positions  assigned  to  different  members 
of  the  group  from  time  to  time.  The  day-flying  habits  of 
the  insects,  together  with  their  airy  forms  and  the  extra- 
ordinary brilliancy  of  their  colours,  naturally  led  to  their 
being  at  first  classed  among  the  Rhopalocera,  or  true 
Butterflies,  but  later  acquaintance  with  their  trans- 
formations proves  them  to  belong  to  the  Heterocerous 
division  of  the  order. 

Bosiduval  describes  one  as  "  ce  magnifique  Lepi- 
doptere,  le  plus  beau  de  la  creation."  They  are  among 
the  most  richly  ornamented  Lepidoptera  of  that  very 
brilliant  order.  It  would  be  difficult  for  art  to  effectually 


DAY- FLYING  MOTHS.  195 

represent  the  changeable  and  resplendent  golden  green 
of  the  numerous  bars,  which  contrasts  with  the  velvety 
black  of  the  wings,  and  varies  with  every  change  of 
light.  It  is  these  splendid  tints  of  green  that  render 
them,  perhaps,  the  most  charming  insects  that  exist, 
and  has  caused  them  to  be  named  Emeralds  ;  some- 
times also  they  are  called  Pages.  The  posterior  wings 
are  prolonged  into  a  single  elegant  pointed  tail,  closely 
resembling  that  appendage  in  many  swallow-tailed 
butterflies  ;  or  there  may  be  present  at  the  hinder 
extremity  of  the  wings  no  fewer  than  three  distinct 
tails,  that  most  remote  from  the  anal  angle  longer  than 
the  others.  The  typical  species  of  these  superb  insects 
are  natives  of  tropical  America,  where  they  fly  so  high, 
and  with  such  amazing  rapidity,  that  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  catch  them,  and  the  only  way,  therefore,  to 
obtain  good  specimens  is  to  rear  the  caterpillar.  When 
at  rest,  the  anterior  wings  are  kept  in  a  flat  or  horizontal 
position,  though  only  slightly  spread,  one  peculiarity, 
amongst  many  others,  in  which  they  resemble  the 
nocturnal  Lepidoptera. 


Urania  Boisduvalii  and  Others. 

Urania  boisduvalii,  which  inhabits  Cuba,  may  be  con- 
sidered one  of  the  most  beautiful  Lepidoptera  known. 


196 


TRUE    TALES    OF  THE   INSECTS. 


M 


It    attains     an 
expansion  of 


4?"  ^Hpp^  f°ur  to  *°ur  anc* 

a  half  inches, 
with  an  undu- 
lated rim,  the 

\1L^RMiJm^  hollows     of 

•IHMifl  which    are    more   or 

less    sparsely   tipped 
with     white ;     other- 
wise   its   colours   are 
velvety     black      and 
green.       While      the 
black  of  the  superior 
pair  of  wings    is    relieved 
with    golden   green    trans- 
verse lines,  and  their  under 
side    is    nearly    all    black, 
with  transverse  lines  of  a 
bluish  green,  on  the  black 
of  the    inferior   wings   we 
note  a  longitudinal   broad 
discal  green  band,  a  mark 
easily    distinguishing    this 
beautiful    species    from  all 
its  congeners.     Its  head  is 

FlG.  $>.— Urania  boisduvalii,  green  and        small    and    black,    having    a 
velvety  black,  from  Cuba. 


DAY-FLYING   MOTHS.  197 

golden  green  V  in  the  middle ;  the  thorax  is  green  and 
black  ;  the  eye  has  a  black  coppery  lustre  (see  Fig.  38). 

On  approaching  from  the  sea  any  open  sandy  shore 
in  the  Isle  of  Cuba  a  copse  wood  is  perceived,  above 
the  coral  reefs,  forming  a  close  and  nearly  impenetrable 
belt,  maybe  ten  or  twenty  yards  wide,  and  composed 
of  almost  one  kind  of  tree,  of  aspect  strange  to  the 
European  eye,  the  Coccoloba  uvifera,  the  so-called  Uvero 
of  the  Spaniards.  Immediately  behind  this  belt  an 
immense  variety  of  vegetation  grows  in  the  parched 
sand — seaside  shrubs  in  plenty,  and  what  not,  in 
general  festooned  with  the  flowers  of  different  lovely 
climbing  plants,  every  object  quivering,  as  it  were, 
beneath  the  scorching  sun — the  plant  of  chief  interest 
to  us  being  that  technically  titled  Omphalea  triandra. 

This,  the  Cob  or  Hog-nut  of  Jamaica,  the  Avellano  of 
the  Island  of  Cuba,  belongs  to  the  family  Euphorbiaceae. 
Sometimes  it  reaches  the  dimensions  of  a  tree,  fifteen 
feet  high.  The  part  that  concerns  us  is  the  leaves — 
great,  thick,  heart-shaped  things  of  leathery  texture, 
and  a  scabrous  surface,  of  a  pale  green.  The  young 
leaves,  and  the  leaves  of  the  young  plants,  although  of 
the  same  texture  and  colour,  are  of  different  form,  being 
deeply  incised. 

During  the  heat  of  the  day,  on  the  upper  side  of  the 
mature  entire  leaves  of  this  tree,  often  the  caterpillar 
of  U.  boisduvalii  may  be  discovered  torpidly  reposing, 


198  TRUE   TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

screened  from  the  fierce  rays  of  the  sun  within  a  thin, 
transparent,  silky  web.  At  night,  no  longer  sluggish, 
it  quits  its  cover,  greedily  stripping  Omphalea  of  its 
foliage,  so  that  trees  are  left  with  scarcely  a  single  leaf; 
nor  is  it  inactive  in  the  daytime  when  disturbed,  but 
can  run  about  quickly,  and  shows  little  affinity  to  the 
caterpillars  of  other  diurnal  Lepidoptera,  which  usually, 
have  a  slow  motion. 

In  February,  and  the  ensuing  months  of  spring  and 
summer,  the  perfect  insect  deposits  its  eggs  on  the 
tender  incised  leaves,  laying  them  singly,  and  apparently 
rarely  attaching  more  than  two  to  the  same  leaf,  gluing 
each  egg  to  its  destined  leaf  by  alighting  on  it  merely 
for  a  moment.  They  are  pale  green,  sometimes  turning 
to  yellow,  and  spherical  as  a  rule ;  and  on  the  whole 
their  surface  is  not  smooth,  but  ornamental,  for  from 
the  summit  proceed  a  number  of  longitudinal  ribs,  the 
spaces  between  which  are  crossed  at  right  angles  by 
obsolete  striae.  The  young  larva,  just  hatched,  is  of 
nearly  the  same  pale  green,  with  a  yellowish  head,  but 
ere  it  reaches  maturity  its  appearance  undergoes  con- 
siderable alteration.  It  is  then  about  two  inches  long, 
and  moderately  hairy  ;  and  while  the  body  varies  in  tint 
from  a  pale  yellowish  green  to  a  flesh  colour,  the  head 
is  now  red,  irregularly  sprinkled  with  some  black  spots, 
and  the  prothorax  is  of  a  velvety  black,  though  sometimes 
white  predominates.  The  head,  be  it  said,  is  polished 


DAY-FLYING  MOTHS.  199 

and  sessile,  and  never  set  on  the  body  by  means  of 
a  narrow  neck.  But  these  larvae  differ  much  from  each 
other  in  size,  marking,  and  colour,  more  so  than  ordi- 
narily occurs  with  larvae  of  the  same  species. 

Eventually  the  larva  spins  an  oval  cocoon  of  dirty 
yellow  silk,  of  which  the  threads  are  so  few,  and  so 
loose,  as  to  allow  the  inmate  to  remain  visible  through 
the  meshes  ;  within  the  cocoon  it  changes  to  pupa. 
The  chrysalis  is  not  at  all  angular,  and,  moreover, 
reposes  in  a  horizontal  position.  Yet  it  agrees  with 
that  of  most  diurnal  Lepidoptera  in  being  rather  gaily 
coloured. 

Soon  from  the  lowly  motionless  pupa  arises  the  aerial 
imago,  whose  flight,  which  is  truly  diurnal,  is  swift, 
always  strong,  and  in  starts.  The  interior  of  the  island 
it  does  not  seem  to  haunt,  but  may  be  found  plenteously 
in  gardens  at  a  distance  of  two,  and  even  three,  leagues 
from  the  shore,  sporting  in  the  sunshine,  and  sipping 
from  the  flowers  of  odoriferous  trees  of  small  stature. 
But  it  is  by  far  the  most  common  near  the  sea,  because 
there  grows  its  favourite  Omphalea.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  however,  it  prefers  flitting  about  the  leaves  of 
Coccoloba  Mvifera,)  unless  when  employed  in  depositing 
its  eggs.  About  midday,  and  in  hot  weather,  it  is 
addicted  to  soaring  particularly  high,  and  surmounts  the 
tops  of  the  tallest  denizens  of  the  forest,  tending  as 
winter  comes  on  to  relinquish  such  ambitious  flight, 


200  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE  INSECTS. 

since  it  alights  at  times  on  hedges,  offering,  of  course, 
a  better  chance  of  securing  specimens. 

As  the  genus  Omphalea  is  common  in  Brazil  and 
Guiana,  in  all  probability  it  affords  pabulum  to  Urania 
braziliensis  and  U.  leilus,  species  whose  habitats  are 
Brazil  and  Cayenne  and  Surinam,  respectively ;  for, 
as  MacLeay  has  remarked,  "  the  minor  natural  groups 
of  Lepidoptera  often  keep  very  constant  to  the  same 
natural  group  of  plants."  Omphalea  triandra,  which 
is  very  widespread  in  Jamaica,  is  doubtless  also  the 
cradle  of  the  Jamaican  Urania  sloanus.  U.  fulgens, 
native  to  Columbia,  Central  America,  and  Mexico,  cer- 
tainly lives  on  arborescent  plants  of  this  genus.  In  a 
word,  the  gorgeous  Madagascar  Chrysiridia  madagas- 
cariensis,  the  species  of  the  East  India  isles,  and  many 
more,  may  likewise  feed  on  leaves  of  seaside  Euphor- 
biaceae.  Captain  King,  in  his  "  Narrative  of  a  Survey 
of  the  Coasts  of  Australia,"  describes  having  found  one 
of  the  insects  in  immense  numbers  about  a  grove  of 
Pandanus  trees,  growing  on  the  banks  of  a  stream 
which  empties  itself  into  the  sea  near  the  extremity  of 
Cape  Grafton  on  the  north-east  coast  of  New  Holland. 
But  MacLeay  has  "  little  doubt  this  species  flitted 
about  the  Pandani  as  U.  fernandince  (boisduvalii)  does 
about  Coccoloba,  while  its  eggs  and  larvae  might  have 
been  found  on  the  neighbouring  Euphorbiaceae." 


DAY-FLYING  MOTHS.  201 


Migration  of  Day-Flying  Moths. 

Remark  the  habit  of  these  day-flying  moths  of  per- 
forming migrations.  The  very  beautiful  Urania  fulgens 
migrates  annually,  from  east  to  west,  in  August  and 
September,  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Flights 
have  been  observed  by  a  naturalist  in  the  Isle  of  Caripi, 
near  Para  in  the  Brazils,  at  Pernambuco,  at  Rio  Janeiro, 
and  in  the  Southern  States  of  America ;  but  he  saw  them 
nowhere  so  abundant  as  on  the  Amazons.  From  early 
morning  till  nearly  dark,  the  insects  passed  along  the  shore 
in  amazing  numbers,  but  most  numerously  in  the  evening, 
and  mainly,  from  west  to  east.  Swainson,  speaking  of 
U.  braziliensis,  a  species  almost  the  exact  counterpart  of 
U.  leihis,  describes  having  witnessed  a  host  flying  during 
the  whole  of  a  morning  in  June  past  Aqua  Fria 
(Pernambuco),  in  a  direction  from  north  to  south — not 
one  deviating  from  this  course,  notwithstanding  the 
flowers  that  were  growing  around  ;  and  though  they 
flew  near  the  ground,  they  mounted  over  every  tree  or 
other  high  object  which  lay  in  their  path,  and  it  was 
impossible  to  capture  a  single  specimen,  so  rapid  was 
their  flight.  For  three  or  four  days  they  continued  to 
pass  in  this  manner.  On  the  occasion  of  the  flights 
over  the  city  of  Panama,  in  some  cases  the  insects  are 
attracted  into  houses  by  the  light,  so  as  to  almost  fill 


202  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 

the  rooms.  They  are  accompanied  by  goat-suckers 
at  night,  and  during  the  day  by  swallows  and  swifts, 
which  probably  destroy  large  numbers.  As  will  be 
gathered,  these  migrations  of  Urania,  though  regular, 
are  confined  to  comparatively  narrow  limits  in  the 
tropics. 


CHAPTER    X. 

THE    CASE    MOTHS    (PSYCHID/E). 

y 

Strange  and  Abnormal  Lepidoptera. 

IT  seems  an  incontrovertible  fact  in  natural  history 
that  there  is  not  a  single  character  which  has  been 
used  to  distinguish  any  group  of  considerable  extent 
from  which  some  one  or  more  of  the  members  thereof 
may  not  depart.  In  that  great  division  of  the  animal 
kingdom  characterized  by  the  possession  of  articulated 
limbs,  many  species  are  met  which  are  entirely  wanting 
in  those  organs ;  and,  similarly,  the  secondary  division 
of  the  Annulosa,  marked  by  the  presence  of  wings  in 
the  final  state — the  Ptilota  of  Aristotle — contains  species 
that,  throughout  life,  never  acquire  instruments  of  flight. 
Of  wingless  insects,  indeed,  examples  might  be  drawn 
from  most  of  the  orders,  and  in  the  majority  of  cases, 
the  females  only  are  thus  deprived.  Rarely,  however, 
both  the  great  characteristics  are  absent.  Yet  certain 
moths  do  not  possess  articulated  feet  in  the  wingless 
state. 

Consequently,   if  we  took  into  consideration  merely 


204  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE  INSECTS. 

the  adult  state  of  the  females,  this  group  must  be  regarded 
as  among  the  most  degraded  instances  of  apiropodous 
insects.  But  such  a  conclusion  cannot  be  maintained, 
as  shown  by  an  examination  of  the  early  stages  of  the 
moths,  for  these,  we  find,  exhibit  as  high  an  amount  of 
organization  as  those  of  any  of  the  other  insects 
appertaining  to  the  order.  The  truth  is,  these  females 
have  become  degenerate  —  very  different  from  the 
creatures  they  once  were.  Their  peculiarity  consists 
in  this,  that  whereas,  as  a  whole,  winged  insects  always 
undergo  a  gradual  evolution  of  structure,  by  which 
ultimately  legs  and  wings  are  developed,  these 
individuals  gradually  lose  their  powers  of  evolution, 
and  not  only  this,  but  suffer  a  process  of  deterioration, 
by  which  the  limbs  which  they  at  first  possessed 
diminish,  and  at  length  dwindle  altogether  away,  until 
the  animal  becomes  a  mere  short,  inert,  vermiform  bag, 
having  not  only  no  distinct  trace  of  legs  and  wings, 
but  also  the  sense-organs,  the  antennae,  and  the  organs 
of  the  mouth  are  almost  or  entirely  obliterated,  and 
even  the  articulated  condition  of  the  body  has  almost 
disappeared.  In  these  extreme  forms  it  is  hardly 
possible  for  the  degeneration  of  the  female  to  proceed 
farther,  and  in  all  doubtless  the  change  has  occupied 
an  immense  period. 

Than  these  extraordinary  moths,  familiar  to  German 
entomologists  under  the  name  of  Sacktragers,  perhaps 


THE    CASE   MOTHS  (PSYCHID^}.  205 

no  more  curious  and  interesting  examples  occur  among 
the  whole  of  the  insect  races ;  certainly,  in  structure 
of  the  female,  and  in  habit,  they  are  the  strangest  and 
most  abnormal  of  all  Lepidoptera.  They  belong  to  the 
Psychidae,  a  portion  of  the  remarkable  silk-spinning 
family  of  the  Bombycidae,  but  offer  many  points  which 
are  distinct  in  themselves,  and  entitle  them  to  rank, 
as  recent  lepidopterists  agree,  as  a  separate  and  well- 
defined  tribe. 

Their  geographical  distribution  is  extensive,  since 
they  are  found  in  Europe,  in  North  and  South  America, 
the  West  Indies  and  Mexico,  in  Northern  India  and 
Ceylon,  in  China,  the  South  Sea  Isles,  and  Australia, 
being  most  abundant  in  sub-tropical  regions.  Wonder- 
fully few  species  are  described  as  natives  of  the  United 
States ;  while  in  California,  unfortunately  three  have 
been  discovered  solely  in  the  larval  state,  the  more 
mature  conditions  of  the  species  as  yet  eluding  detec- 
tion. But  there,  as  in  various  other  parts  of  the 
globe,  probably  greater  numbers  await  the  industry  of 
observers. 

Among  English-speaking  folk  the  common  appellations 
for  the  moths  originate  in  the  same  circumstance  as  the 
popular  term  in  Germany  ;  house-builders,  sack-bearers, 
basket-carriers,  basket- worms,  case-moths,  —  by  these 
names  they  pass  in  England,  America,  and  Australia, 
on  account  of  the  singular  habitations,  or  sacks,  they 


206  TRUE    TALES   OF   THE  INSECTS. 

weave  for  the  well-being  of  the  caterpillars,  in  the  early 
stages  of  their  growth.  Through  the  whole  of  their 
larval  life  they  carry  the  protecting  structure  about  with 
them  ;  and  as  regards  the  apterous  female,  she  never 
leaves  this  home  in  which  she  dwelt  while  in  larva — 
one  of  the  oddest  incidents  in  this  odd  economy — but 
reaching  maturity,  and  bringing  forth  her  young,  dies 
at  last,  without  once  quitting  her  self-constructed 
prison. 

She  deposits  her  ova,  an  immense  number,  within  the 
body  of  the  case,  closely  enveloped  in  some  species  in 
a  short  silky  down  ;  and  almost  as  soon  as  the  larvae  are 
hatched,  they  force  their  way  out  of  the  puparium  which 
served  for  the  defence  of  the  eggs,  deserting  their  early 
abode,  and  going  forth  into  the  world  to  follow  inde- 
pendent lives.  Escaping  in  crowds  from  the  lower 
end  of  the  tube  to  some  twig  or  leaf,  they  immediately 
commence  to  prepare  for  themselves  each  a  separate 
case,  arranged  in  every  respect  as  the  larger  ones,  even 
before  they  have  taken  food. 


Young  Sack-bearers  at  Home. 

The  caterpillars  manifest  marvellous  ingenuity  in  the 
construction  of  their  cases.  Particles  of  wood  or  bark, 
leaves,  sticks,  straws,  lichens,  mosses,  and  other  vegetable 


THE    CASE   MOTHS   (PSYCffSD^E). 


207 


FIG.  39 — Larva  case  (Metura  elongatd),  from  Sydney. 

substances,  form,  among  the  different  species,  the  outer 
covering  or  decorative  fortification  of  the  house;   the 


2o8  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE  INSECTS. 

interior  is  lined  with  soft  silk,  and  interwoven  silky 
threads  likewise  bind  together  the  external  fragments. 
In  the  building  materials  chosen,  and  their  arrange- 
ment, Metura  eiongata  is  a  most  interesting  architect  (see 
Fig.  39).  Strengthening  the  large,  elongate  ovate  bag 
of  silk,  and  worked  into  it  irregularly,  appear  numerous 
rows  of  short  sticks,  rather  distantly  separated,  and  about 
half  an  inch  long,  generally  speaking ;  but  towards  the 
lower  end  there  are  usually  several  sticks  from  one  to 
four  inches  long,  in  the  centre  of  which  the  lower  end  of 
the  silken  bag  protrudes,  free  from  sticks,  and  very  flexible. 
It  has  a  charming  silky  softness,  and  is  of  a  grey,  ash, 
or  mouse  colour.  Of  this  beautiful  tissue  the  upper  or 
head  extremity  is  also  composed,  forming  a  tube  half 
an  inch  wide.  In  the  case  of  the  Lictor  Moth  (Entometa 
ignobilis),  consisting  of  a  cylindrical  bundle  of  slender 
bits  of  straight  twig,  about  an  inch  in  length,  the  sticks, 
as  in  the  previous  instance,  are  fixed  longitudinally  by 
the  whole  inner  side  to  the  flexible  silken  lining ;  the 
title  Lictor  is  suggested  by  the  resemblance  between  the 
cases  and  the  fasces,  or  bundle  of  rods,  borne  by  the 
lictors  of  old  before  the  consuls.  But  a  third  Australian, 
Animula  huebneri  by  name,  has  a  case  covered  extern- 
ally with  a  vast  number  of  very  slender  twigs  affixed  to 
it  by  one  end  only,  the  other  being  free.  Here  we 
perceive  an  admirable  piece  of  instinct,  the  loose  points 
of  the  twigs  being  always  directed  backwards,  so  that 


THE    CASE  MOTHS   (PSYCHID^E}.  209 

in  walking  they  oppose  no  resistance  to  the  progress 
of  the  caterpillar,  which  they  would  do  were  they 
attached  in  the  opposite  direction,  or  without  method. 
Cases  of  considerable  size  are  armed  with  large  pieces 
of  leaf  in  similar  fashion.  It  will  be  observed  that  these 
twigs,  or  leaves,  as  the  case  may  be,  are  arranged  some- 
what systematically,  the  base  of  those  nearest  the  narrow 
extremity  lying  beneath  those  nearer  the  wider  aperture, 
or  mouth,  showing  the  latter  to  have  been  added  subse- 
quently, proving,  in  fact,  that  the  case  is  gradually 
manufactured  in  the  direction  of  its  mouth.  Through 
this  the  larva  habitually  puts  its  head.  It  is  thus  easy 
enough  for  it  to  extend  its  dwelling  n  this  direction 
while  resident  within  it,  though  it  necessarily  exposes 
itself  to  a  considerable  extent  in  applying  the  twigs 
or  leaves  to  the  outside. 

The  leather-like  case  of  Animula  herrichii  is  of 
remarkable  construction,  in  that  the  external  surface  is 
destitute  of  any  extraneous  matters. 

As  a  larva  grows,  needing  more  accommodation,  it 
splits  the  habitation  at  the  sides,  weaving  into  the  open- 
ing portions  of  the  vegetable  substances  selected,  and 
adding  to  the  exterior  fresh  pieces  of  stick,  straw,  or 
leaves,  as  it  requires.  So  with  Saunders'  Case  Moth, 
when  any  accident  happens  to  the  nest,  the  caterpillar, 
with  incredible  expedition,  repairs  the  damage  received, 
employing  the  same  silky  stuff  to  fill  up  the  hole  ;  and 


210  TRUE    TALES   OF   THE   INSECTS. 

with  a  nicety  so  perfect  that  the  severest  scrutiny  can- 
not detect  what  was  the  extent  of  the  injury. 

Under  the  protection,  then,  of  the  substantial  and 
somewhat  formidable  case  the  larva  lives.  At  each  end 
there  is  an  opening,  and  through  the  anterior  one  it 
emerges  to  feed  and  change  its  position.  Commonly, 
it  only  protrudes  the  head  and  the  first  three  or  four 
segments  of  the  body,  or  sufficient  to  use  its  six  true 
legs  for  locomotion  when  feeding ;  and  if  wishful  to 
remain  quiet,  it  usually  takes  the  precaution  of  fastening 
a  portion  of  the  edge  of  the  aperture  by  fibres  of  silk 
temporarily  to  the  branch  upon  which  it  is,  that,  if 
alarmed,  it  can  suddenly  recede  completely  into  the 
case,  very  rapidly  drawing  in  the  flexible  part  after  it, 
by  means  of  its  mandibles  and  forelegs,  and  contracting 
the  aperture  so  as  to  exclude  all  enemies.  Thus  hid,  it 
stays  in  security,  suspended  only  by  a  few  threads.  Were 
the  nature  of  the  hanging,  tight-closed,  strong,  tough  sack 
unknown,  it  would  never  be  suspected  of  containing  an 
active,  voracious  larva.  Exceedingly  wary  and  timid  are 
these  insects  in  retreating  at  the  approach  of  danger. 
On  a  desire  for  removal,  the  suspending  threads  are 
bitten  off  close  to  the  case. 

As  long  as  the  caterpillar  is  small,  and  the  house  of 
no  great  weight,  it  is  borne  nearly  erect,  but  soon,  as  a 
rule,  the  incumbent  mass  lies  flat,  owing  to  increased 
weight,  and  is  dragged  along  in  that  attitude.  The 


THE    CASE  MOTHS  (PSYCHIDsE).  211 

abdominal  and  anal  legs  of  the  larva  are  furnished  with 
a  series  of  small  points  or  hooks,  with  which  it  moves 
in  the  tube,  laying  hold  of  the  interior  of  the  lining,  to 
which  it  can  adhere  with  great  pertinacity ;  so  firm  is 
the  hold  retained,  it  is  impossible  to  remove  the  creature 
without  injury. 

Coming  of  Age. 

Having  attained  full  growth,  and  being  about  to 
change  to  pupa,  the  larva  of  Metura  saundersii  firmly 
fixes  itself,  by  means  of  silken  fibres,  spun  for  the 
purpose,  to  a  branch  or  trunk  of  a  tree,  or  paling, 
drawing  together  and  permanently  closing  the  head 
opening.  It  reverses  its  position  in  the  case,  so  that 
the  head  is  where  the  tail  used  to  be,  pointed  towards 
the  posterior  or  unattached  end,  and  envelopes  itself 
in  a  soft  silken  cocoon,  of  a  yellowish  colour.  Allowing 
itself  to  hang  perpendicularly,  head  downwards,  it  awaits 
the  pupal  sleep. 

From  the  facts  just  stated,  it  need  hardly  be  said  that, 
when  the  time  arrives,  the  perfect  insect  emerges  from 
the  posterior  portion  of  the  tube.  At  this  particular 
time  the  male  pupa  becomes  endowed  with  the  power  of 
stretching  out  its  segments,  to  enable  it  to  work  its  way 
out  of  the  extremity.  Through  the  opening  of  the 
posterior  end  it  pushes  the  anterior  half  of  its  length  by 


2i2  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

a  slight  elongation  and  contraction  of  the  body,  which, 
with  the  assistance  of  a  transverse  series  of  minute  sharp 
spines  or  hooks,  directed  backwards,  on  some  of  the 
segments,  is  in  this  way  forced  out  head  foremost,  in  like 
manner  as  the  pupae  of  the  Goat  Moths  and  the  large 
Swifts  are  made  to  emerge  from  timber  and  the  earth, 
when  the  moth  is  ready  to  escape.  The  pupae  are 
prevented  from  being  thrust  entirely  out  of  the  case  by 
two  strong  anal  hooks.  After  the  issue  of  the  imago,  the 
segments  remain  in  their  stretched-out  condition.  Cases 
having  belonged  to  males  are  often  seen  with  the 
empty  pupa  skin  sticking  rather  more  than  half  out  of 
the  lower  aperture,  hanging  head  downwards,  as  left 
by  the  moth. 

It  will  be  observed,  both  in  the  present  species  and  the 
Lictor  Moth,  as  in  others,  that  there  are,  as  I  have  shown, 
in  most  of  the  cases,  one  or  two  pieces  of  twigs  longer 
than  those  of  which  the  remainder  of  the  case  is  com- 
posed, and  extending  posteriorly  some  distance  beyond 
the  termination  of  the  fabric.  Possibly  these  may  be 
intended  to  assist  the  male,  on  entering  the  perfect  state, 
to  effect  his  exit  from  the  case,  the  twig  affording  foot- 
hold, and  aiding  the  imago  to  draw  his  long  abdomen 
out  of  the  pupa  skin. 

The  males  of  these  moths  are  swift  flyers  of  extra- 
ordinary activity,  dashing  themselves  wildly,  almost  to 
pieces,  among  the  branches  of  the  trees.  A  fiery  little 


THE   CASE  MOTHS  (PSYCHIDM}.  213 

creature  has  no  sooner  arisen  from  his  pupal  slumber 
than  he  begins  his  violent  fluttering,  and  as  the  wings 
are  delicate  in  structure,  in  many  instances  nearly  trans- 
parent, his  beauty  has  generally  disappeared  before  the 
entomologist  can  secure  him,  and  specimens  in  good 
order  are  rare  in  collections.  With  slight  exception, 
we  find  no  homogeneousness  in  the  perfect  state  of 
the  insects  of  this  group,  but  much  variation  of  form 


FIG.  40. — Male  and  female  Melnra  elongata. 

presented  by  the  different  species.  The  general  shape 
of  the  body  varies  from  one  greatly  elongated,  as  in 
Metura  elongata,  in  Dappula  tertia,  and  Oiketicus  kirbii, 
to  a  short  and  robust,  as  well  as  to  a  short  and  slender 
form.  In  like  manner  the  wings  vary  from  a  long, 
narrow,  and  sharp-pointed  wing,  as  in  Metura,  to  a  wing 
of  short,  broad,  and  ample  proportions  ;  and  again,  may 
either  be  densely  squamose,  or  colourless,  of  beautiful 
hyaline  texture,  almost  or  completely  destitute  of  scales 
or  hairs.  The  antennae  may  be  deeply  pectinated  only 


214  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

at  the  base,  in  others  they  are  feathered  to  the  tip  ;  and 
in  the  number  of  joints  offer  striking  variations  (see 
Fig.  40). 


Probable  Cause  of  Disappearance  of  Beauty. 

But  the  males  of  nearly  all  Psychidae  are  characterized 
by  a  uniform  dull  dark  colour  of  a  brown  or  grey  tint  ; 
there  is  an  almost  total  absence  of  bright  colour  or 
of  pattern.  Yet  these  moths  are  in  nearly  all  cases  day- 
flying.  Probably  the  beauty  of  the  males  disappears 
when  the  females  become  degenerate,  and  the  conditions 
which  produced  it  are  then  at  an  end.  In  other  species 
of  Bombyces  in  which  the  degeneracy  of  the  females  is 
less  complete,  less  pronounced  is  the  attendant  loss  of 
colour  by  the  males.  The  day-flying  Bombyces,  whose 
females  retain  full  possession  of  their  faculties,  are 
remarkable  for  the  brightness  and  beauty  of  their 
colours/"" 


Singular  Rarity  of  Moths  considering  Abundance 

of  Cases. 

The   larval    cases    of  these    moths   are  amongst  the 
"  common  objects  "  in  Australia,  meeting  the  eye  every- 

*  Poulton,  "  The  Colours  of  Animals." 


THE    CASE  MOTHS   (PSYCH rID L^1).  215 

where  suspended  to  trees  and  shrubs,  such  as  the 
different  kinds  of  Leptospermum,  Melaleuca,  etc.,  fixed 
by  their  anterior  end,  and  swinging  loose  otherwise. 
When  unusually  abundant,  so  as  to  look  like  a  good  crop 
of  some  seed  or  fruit,  the  pendant  berths  are  particularly 
conspicuous,  and  attract  the  attention  of  the  least  curious 
of  mortals.  The  most  striking  examples  of  the  group 
belong  to  Metura  saundersii,  whose  cases  are  sometimes 
over  five  inches  long  ;  those  of  the  male  are  one- 
third  smaller  ;  but  if  this  kind  far  exceeds  any  of  the 
others  in  size,  the  case  of  the  Lictor  Moth  bears  off  the 
palm  for  excessive  abundance.  The  latter  species  chiefly 
frequents  the  Eucalypti,  or  Gum-trees  so-called,  but  may 
also  be  found  plenteously  on  many  others  of  diverse 
botanical  characters. 

Considering  this  abundance,  the  insects  are  singularly 
rare  in  the  moth  state  ;  not  one  case  in  a  hundred  will 
be  found  to  produce  a  moth,  owing,  partly,  to  the  de- 
structive effects  of  attacks  on  the  larvae  of  Ichneumo- 
nideous  and  Dipterous  parasites ;  even  the  Lictor  Moths 
are  surprisingly  difficult  to  procure.  From  the  same 
cause,  nothing  is  harder,  nay,  more  nearly  impossible,  it 
may  be  mentioned,  than  to  rear  these  creatures  in  confine- 
ment. The  caterpillars  of  a  species  may  be  collected 
persistently  for  years,  and  watched  with  incessant  care, 
and  yet  never  reach  the  perfect  stage.  Hence  there  are 
already  imperfectly  known  species  of  which  the  more 


216  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE  INSECTS. 

mature  conditions  await  discovery  ;  and  when  success 
does  attend  our  efforts  at  protection,  many  examples  are 
probably  observed  of  the  depredations  of  the  insidious 
parasites.  Not  that  failure  to  attain  perfection  is  always 
due  to  infestation  of  parasitic  insects,  as  undoubtedly  the 
somewhat  ponderous  houses  of  the  larvae  render  them  to 
a  high  degree  impervious  to  the  onslaughts  of  insect 
enemies  :  the  cause  of  death  must  be  looked  for  else- 
where. Death  usually  occurs  after  the  larva  has  under- 
gone metamorphosis,  the  pupa  gradually  shrivelling  up 
after  assuming  its  proper  form,  nor  can  anything  be 
done,  apparently,  to  avert  the  calamity. 


A    Perpetual  Prisoner. 

To  return  to  the  Case  Moths'  metamorphoses.  The 
female  insect,  as  we  have  seen,  unlike  the  male,  is 
destined  never  to  desert  the  larval  home.  For  her  no 
hour  of  emergence  ever  comes.  When  the  pupa  has 
slept  the  appointed  time,  the  unwieldy  and  almost 
motionless  moth  feels  little  of  the  movement  of  on- 
coming life  then  experienced  by  her  lithe  and  lively 
partner  ;  the  animal,  still  resident  within  the  habita- 
culum  formed  by  the  larva,  splits  asunder  the  pupa  skin, 
and  her  transformations  are  complete  :  in  some,  at 
least,  of  the  species  the  female  imago  is  continually 


THE    CASE   MOTHS  (PSYCHID^,).  217 

enclosed  in  the  pupa  case.  Here,  therefore,  we  have  an 
insect  which  in  its  adult  state  is  for  ever  excluded  from 
the  light,  and  never  even  beholds  its  mate. 

In  many  of  the  genera  the  female  is  of  the  most  dege- 
nerate type — a  mere  bag,  a  grub-like  thing,  the  head, 
thorax,  and  abdomen  hardly  distinguishable  from  each 
other ;  without  limbs  or  sense  organs  ;  totally  unprovided 
with  wings,  legs,  antennae,  or  eyes.  In  the  pupa  case  of 
these  forms  no  distinct  trace  of  former  organs  can  be 
made  out ;  in  others  they  appear  in  a  very  rudimentary 
condition  ;  in  others  again,  still  more  distinctly.  Observe 
the  amount  of  development  in  two  forms  already  men- 
tioned, Oiketicus  kirbii  and  Oiketicus  saundersii.  We  see 
the  ordinary  grub-like  appearance  in  the  first,  the  three 
great  divisions  of  the  body  being  scarcely  defined,  and 
the  whole  enclosed  in  a  tough  envelope.  Here  exist 
neither  tongue,  palpi,  nor  antennas,*  no  wings,  and  all 
but  obsolete  unarticulated  feet :  the  general  colour  of 
the  body  is  brownish  ;  the  neck  and  anus  are  clothed 
with  wool-like  hairs.  Turn  to  Metiira  saundersii, 
about  one  and  three-quarter  inches  in  length,  and  in 
diameter  full  half  an  inch  ;  cylindrical;  of  a  pale  brownish 
cream-colour,  the  head  and  thoracic  segments  light 
brown,  fleshy,  and  smooth,  the  terminal  segments  clothed 
all  round  with  dense  silky  down,  of  a  deeper  colour  than 
the  rest  of  the  body.  The  insect  is  apterous,  her  antennae 

*  Or  only  the  very  slightest  rudiments  of  these. 


2i8  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 

are  minute,  unjointed,  scarcely  visible  to  the  naked  eye ; 
but  the  feet,  though  very  short  and  thick,  are  well 
articulated.  It  is  this  structure  of  the  legs  which  at 
once  distinguishes  this  imago  from  the  larva  ;  in  this 
respect  also  it  differs  from  the  female  of  Oiketicus  kirbii 
(see  Fig.  40). 

Having  filled  the  bottom  of  their  puparium  with  their 
ova,  packed  in  the  down  rubbed  from  their  own  body, 
these  females  do  not  long  survive.  The  moth  is  then 
literally  nothing  but  thin  skin.  Reduced  to  a  shrivelled, 
dried,  and  scarcely  animated  morsel  of  this  matter,  she 
either  presses  herself  through  the  opening  of  the  case, 
or,  exhausted,  the  last  feeble  flicker  of  life  burnt  out, 
expires  within. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

THE    HAWK    MOTHS 

FP:W  moths  are  so  attractive  to  lepidopterists,  indeed,  to 
all  lovers  of  Nature,  as  the  Sphingidae,  or  Hawk  Moths, 
partly  from  the  beauty  of  the  specimens.  This  is  an 
extensive  group,  and  its  members,  if  not  surpassing 
every  other  family  of  Heterocera  in  size,  in  their  speed 
and  indefatigable  flight  are  unequalled. 


Leading  Characteristics  of  this  Favourite  Gro^lp. 

They  are  a  highly  organized  and  specialized  assem- 
blage. A  plump,  robust,  yet,  as  a  rule,  a  graceful  body, 
an  usually  long,  conic,  cylindrical  abdomen,  and  pris- 
matic antennae — these  may  be  said  to  be  their  leading 
characteristics  ;  and  generally  the  wings  are  comparatively 
small  and  narrow,  the  forewings  extending  far  beyond 
the  hind  pair,  and  rather  pointed ;  the  tongue,  though 
variable,  is  often  strong  and  long,  much  exceeding  the 
length  of  the  insect  itself,  but  is  sometimes  obsolete. 
In  habits  they  are  diurnal  or  crepuscular,  some  flying  in 


220  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

brilliant  sunshine,  and  others — the  majority — in  the  early 
evening,  in  the  twilight  and  just  at  dusk  ;  and  certain 
species  are  nocturnal  and  fly  to  light. 

The  larvae  are  as  readily  distinguished  as  the  imagos. 
Conspicuous,  green  in  colour,  hairless,  and  smooth,  many 
are  furnished  with  a  prominent  rigid  spine  near  the  tail 
called  the  caudal  horn,  which  is  sometimes  lost  in  the 
later  stages  and  then  replaced  by  a  shining  lenticular 
tubercle.  At  rest,  they  have  a  remarkable  fashion  of 
elevating  the  head  and  thoracic  segments,  and  curving 
them  somewhat  in  sigmoidal  shape,  while  they  support 
themselves  by  their  four  or  six  hind  legs,  in  which  posture 
they  remain  for  hours  together,  immovably  fixed  ;  and  it 
is  supposed  that  this  attitude,  giving  them  a  fancied 
resemblance  to  the  Egyptian  Sphinx,  prompted  the 
name  that  Linnaeus  bestowed.  They  pass  a  solitary 
existence  on  trees,  shrubs,  or  low  plants,  and  suffer 
much  from  Ichneumonidae,  the  check  that  alone  prevents 
some  species  from  becoming  very  injurious.  When  full- 
grown  they  transform  above  ground  in  an  imperfect 
cocoon  among  leaves,  or  go  underground  and  pupate 
in  a  cell. 

Macroglos  since. 

Within  this  family  six  sub-families  are  included,  and 
the  marvellously  specialized  condition  of  some  of  their 


THE  HAWK  MOTHS  (SPHINGIDM). 


221 


structural  characters  is  brimful  of  interest.     Most  of  the 
Macroglossinae  bear  a  complete  resemblance  to  humming- 


FIG.  41. — A  long  proboscis  (Cocytius  cluentius). 

birds,  due  to  their  large,  expansile  tuft   of  hair-scales 
at  the  extremity  of  the  abdomen,  and  their  custom  of 


222  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE  INSECTS. 

hovering  over  flowers  while  sucking  the  nectar  with 
their  long  probosces.  That  these  insects  really  are  birds 
the  uninitiated  determinedly  believe.  The  natives  of  the 
Amazons,  as  Bates  relates,  think  that  the  moth  changes 
into  the  bird,  just  as  the  caterpillar  changes  to  the  moth  ; 
Bates  himself  several  times  shot  Aellopos  titan  in  mistake 
for  a  humming-bird,  so  close  is  the  resemblance  between 
them  on  the  wing.  The  Bee  Hawks  (Hemaris)  have 
transparent  wings,  the  clear  spaces  on  emergence  from 
the  pupa  being  thinly  spread  with  glittering  scales,  which 
fall  on  the  first  occasion  of  flight.  During  the  hottest 
hours  of  bright  sunny  days  they  make  their  appearance 
among  the  blossoms  and  regale  on  their  sweets,  probably 
like  all  the  Macroglossinse  with  entire  wings,  such  as 
Lepisesia  ;  but  those  with  angulated  wings  fly  also  in  the 
dusk  of  evening.  Genera  of  the  following  tribe  are  like- 
wise taken  in  the  day.  Because  of  this  diurnal  habit,  and 
the  general  idea  that  it  is  the  most  specialized  group, 
entomologists  usually  place  the  Macroglossinae  at  the 
head  of  the  great  series  Sphingidse. 


Ch&rocampina  and  Ambulicincz. 

To  the  peculiar  tapering,  often  retractile,  form  of  the 
larva,  the  Chcerocampinae,  the  so-called  Elephant  Hawks, 


J 

THE   HAWK  MOTHS  (S P ffING W &).  223 

owe  both  their  English  and  Greek  appellations ;  Chcero- 
campa,  the  name  of  the  typical  genus,  means  Hog  cater- 
pillar. These  moths  are  chiefly  remarkable  for  their 
power  of  swift  and  long-sustained  flight.  The  whole 
sub-family  throughout  shows  a  tendency  to  bright  colours 
and  distinct  shades  and  bands  in  wing  maculation.  The 
abdomen  is  rarely  banded,  and  there  are  few  sober  grey 
forms  represented  ;  on  the  contrary,  particularly  in 
America,  some  are  of  a  most  beautiful  and  graceful 
description.  Certain  genera,  as  in  the  Ambulicinae,  have 
the  anal  segment  of  the  abdomen  in  the  males  expanded 
laterally,  an  aspect  approaching  that  of  Macroglossinae  in 
this  respect. 


Sphingina. 

When  we  turn  to  the  Sphinginae,  we  find  these,  as  a 
rule,  sober  grey  or  brown,  the  usually  moderately  narrow 
and  pointed  wings  of  even  outer  margin,  not  sinuate  or 
angulated  as  in  the  Chcerocampinse.  For  the  broad 
shades  or  bands  of  the  latter,  we  have  here  a  maculation 
consisting  either  of  simple,  undulated,  transverse  lines, 
or  of  longitudinal,  interspacial  dashes.  Sometimes  we 
get  a  mottled  surface  of  grey  and  black  without  distinct 
pattern  ;  the  abdomen,  too,  is  almost  universally  banded 
or  spotted  ;  and  by  these  peculiarities  in  marking,  and 


224  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 

the  wing-form,  species  of  this  sub-family  may  be  easily 
recognized.  Often  their  size  is  extraordinary,  for 
members  of  Cocytius,  a  South  American  genus,  which 
includes  the  largest  known  Sphingidae,  expand  as  much 
as  eight  and  nine  inches  across  the  wings.  The  length 
of  their  tongue  calls  for  similar  remark,  and  some  repre- 
sent the  extreme  of  development  in  this  direction  (see 
Fig.  41).  A  tongue  five  or  six  inches  long  is  nowise 
uncommon  ;  that  of  a  tropical  African  attains  to  seven 
and  a  half  inches ;  the  proboscis  of  Cocytius  cluentius 
reaches  nearly  two  inches  more  !  and  Dr.  Wallace  some 
years  ago  predicted  with  confidence  the  discovery  of  a 
Sphinx  in  Madagascar  with  a  tongue  even  of  eleven  or 
twelve  inches,  which  could  reach  the  nectar  in  the  largest 
flowers  of  Angrcecum  sesqidpedale,  a  singular  Madagascar 
orchid,  whose  immensely  deep  nectaries  vary  in  length 
from  ten  to  fourteen  inches.  At  the  other  end  of  the 
scale  are  forms  like  Ellema  harrisiivi  the  United  States, 
where  the  organ  is  obsolete,  or  a  mere  membraneous 
rudiment.  Another  distinguishing  feature  of  a  large 
number  of  species  in  this  group  consists  in  their  ten- 
dency to  spinose,  or  armed  tibiae  and  tarsi,  which  in  the 
Chcerocampinae  is  barely  indicated  in  Deilephila. 

These  insects,  as  well  as  the  sub-family  Smerinthinae, 
pupate  in  the  earth  without  silk,  an  event  more  dangerous 
to  the  individual  than  in  the  cocoon-making  groups, 
for  the  roving  larvae,  seeking  shelter,  may  find  the 


THE   HAWK  MOTHS  (SPHINGID^). 


225 


ground  unsuitable,  and  fall  ready  victims  to  attack. 
Their  flight  in  imago  is  crepuscular  and  nocturnal  with- 
out exception. 
There  is  thus 
a  correlation  be- 
tween habit  and 
structure  ;  and, 
as  we  have  seen, 
the  higher  Ma- 
croglossinae  and 
Chcerocampinae — which  may  have  a  surface  pupation  and 
use  silken  threads — tend  to  discard  the  ordinary  habit  of 
the  Heterocera  and  become  day-fliers. 


FIG.  42. — Hawk  moth  (Lophostethus  diimolinii},  from 
Port  Natal. 


Manducince. 

The  sub-family  Manducinae  has  always  attracted 
attention,  with  its  type  Manduca  atropos,  the  well-known 
Death's  Head  Moth,  which  is  famed  for  its  peculiar 
coloration  and  the  squeaking  sound  that  it  utters.  The 
pattern  and  colours,  the  ringed  abdomen,  and  the 
contrast  between  the  fore-  and  hind-wings,  ally  this 
Old  World  group  with  the  typi«  -,i  hawk  moths. 


Smerinthina. 

At  the  foot  of  the  series  stand  the  Smerinthinae,  or 
Eyed  Hawks,  with  dentated  wings  more  or  less,  small 

Q 


226  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

retracted  head  and  thorax  short  and  broad,  and  antennae 
slightly  pectinated  in  the  males  ;  insects  often  exceed- 
ingly richly  coloured.  In  their  maxillae,  or  proboscis, 
they  offer  a  striking  contrast  to  the  Sphinginae.  It  is 
short  or  wanting,  and  of  course,  minus  a  tongue,  the 
moths  are  incapable  of  feeding.  They  are  heavy  and 
sluggish  in  motion  ;  the  wings  are  not  built  for  rapid  or 
sustained  flight,  consequent  upon  the  poorly  developed 
state  of  the  thoracic  muscles.  But  they  fly  to  light,  and 
in  this  way  many  are  taken.  Withal  they  are  truly 
Sphingiform  in  larval  and  imaginal  characters,  and  have 
the  anal  horn,  but  the  insects  are  thoroughly  bombici- 
form  in  habit  and  appearance  (see  Fig.  42). 

One  of  the  distinguishing  characters  of  the  Sphingidae, 
the  reader  is  aware,  is  their  smooth,  hairless  larvae. 
Strange  to  say,  it  is  a  received  opinion  that  they  are  an 
outgrowth  of  a  spinous  or  bristly  haired  larval  group,  the 
posterior  spine,  or  caudal  horn,  of  Sphingidae  being 
regarded  as  a  remnant  of  a  general  spinous  covering. 
Probably  the  horn  is  developed  from  one  or  more  spines 
or  bristles,  the  skin  itself  at  the  base  of  which  has  been 
prolonged,  and  stiffened  by  chitine. 

In  form  and  structure  the  Sphingidae  seem  to  be 
most  closely  related  to  the  American  group  of  the 
Ceratocampinae.  If  we  regard  the  larvae  of  the  latter, 
we  see  the  anal  horn  become  stouter  and  more  developed 
through  the  series  Dryocampa,  Anisota,  Citheronia ;  the 


THE   HAWK  MOTHS  (SPHINGIDAE).  227 

spines  are  gradually  lost  as  the  caudal  horn  became 
variously  formed.  The  Sphingidae  have  become  smooth, 
and  show  only  a  thoracic  crest  or  the  anal  spine  re- 
presented by  a  horn.  Probably  the  Sphingidae  were 
cast  off  from  the  Bombyces  or  Spinners  parallel  with 
the  Ceratocampinae.  That  the  Sphingidae  may  have 
been  evolved  from  the  ancestors  of  the  Ceratocampinae 
we  have  reason  to  believe.  The  sub- family  Smerin- 
thinae  would  seem  to  be  descendants  of  the  oldest  forms 
of  the  Sphingidae.  The  small  and  sunken  head,  the 
shape  of  the  thorax,  and  the  pectinate  antennae  are 
probably  low  characters  in  the  Hawk  Moths,  and  recall 
the  Bombyces ;  as  also  the  subterranean  pupation 
without  silk,  together  with  the  nocturnal  flight.  The 
mode  of  flight  of  the  Smerinthinae,  which  is  opposed  to 
the  characteristic  manner  of  other  hawk  moths,  and 
their  rudimentary  mouth-parts,  which  prevent  them 
feeding  in  the  perfect  state,  likewise  show  affinity  to  the 
Bombyces.  It  is  therefore  manifest  that  these  two 
marked  features  of  the  hawk  moths — that  they  feed 
freely  and  are  highly  specialized  in  relation  to  flowers — 
were  wanting  in  their  Bombyciform  ancestors,  and  are 
still  wanting  in  Smerinthus. 

When  we  turn  to  the  general  distribution  of  these 
moths,  we  find  that  while  the  Old  World  possesses  a 
somewhat  fuller  and  better  representation  of  the  higher 
groups,  in  America  the  grey,  moth-like  Sphinginae  exist 


228  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 

in  the  greater  number  of  forms.  The  representation  in 
the  Old  World  is  the  more  brilliant  of  the  two,  owing  to 
the  number  of  bright-coloured  Chcerocampinae  of  the 
Himalayan  region.  In  respect  of  colour,  America  has 
the  advantage,  however,  as  regards  the  Smerinthinae ; 
both  Calasymbolus  and  Paonias,  for  example,  are  ex- 
tremely beautiful.  North  America  is  indeed  peculiarly 
rich  in  species  belonging  to  the  more  typical  ocellated 
group;  but  the  less  typical  unocellated  genera  are  not 
well  represented. 


Sphingida  have  their  Metropolis  in  the  Tropics. 

The  habits  of  the  Sphingidae,  it  need  hardly  be  said, 
render  them  quite  unsuited  to  cold,  rigorous  climates. 
It  is  in  the  tropics,  where  they  revel  in  warm  sunshine 
and  a  luxuriant  flora,  that  they  have  their  metropolis — 
where  they  reach  the  highest  development  in  kinds  and 
numbers.  The  family  is  not  represented  in  Iceland,  nor 
in  Labrador,  in  all  probability  ;  but  they  occur  in  Van- 
couver and  in  Newfoundland,  and  in  Upper  Canada  the 
majority  of  those  inhabiting  the  Middle  States  may  be 
found.  Hemaris  diffinis  extends  further  north  than 
most  other  species. 


THE   HA  WK  MOTHS  (SPHINGID&).  229 

Occasional   Visitors  from  Sunnier  Climes. 

But,  now  and  again,  these  colder  latitudes  receive 
visits  from  the  species  of  the  sunnier  climes.  To  Europe 
in  this  way  comes  the  celebrated  Oleander  Hawk  Moth 
from  Africa  ;  and  our  Cheer ocampa  celerio,  the  Vine  Hawk, 
is  probably  only  a  casual  visitor  with  us.  The  summer 
winds  bring  like  occasional  welcome  guests  to  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  States  of  America,  from  the  West  Indies, 
and  Florida  ;  among  them  the  Blue  and  Green  Argeus 
labruscce,  Dilophonotaello,  commonly  called  the  Wandering 
Hawk,  and  the  Bee  Hawks,  Aellopos  titan  and  tantalus, 
the  last  from  the  Antilles.  Triptogon  lugubris,  Dupo 
vitis  and  linnei,  and  Phlegethontius  rustica  may  be  also 
mentioned  as  tropical  species  appearing  irregularly,  or  as 
wind  visitors  in  the  north. 

As  wanderers  over  the  face  of  the  globe  none  can 
compete  with  the  Chcerocampinse ;  and  as  swift  flyers 
they  have  no  rivals,  with  their  pointed  bodies  and  beauti- 
ful clear-cut  wings.  Ckcerocampa  celerio  has  the  greatest 
geographical  range.  Always  rare  with  us,  it  is  met  with 
the  vine  everywhere  throughout  the  warmer  parts  of  the 
Old  World,  and  not  unfrequently  is  caught  on  board 
ship,  out  of  sight  of  land.  No  species  more  admirably 
exemplifies  the  family  renown  for  rapid  and  indefatigable 
flight. 


CHAPTER   XII. 

THE  DEATH'S  HEAD  MOTH. 


FIG.  43.— The  Death's  Head  Moth. 

It  is  in  Several  Respects 
a  Most  Remarkable 
Species. 

THE  remarkable  and  beautiful  Sphinge,  the  Death's 
Head  Moth,  attains  an  expansion  of  wing  sometimes 
not  far  short  of  six  inches,  being  therefore  not  only  the 
largest  of  our  indigenous  Lepidoptera,  but,  with  one 


THE  DEATH'S  HEAD   MOTH.  231 

exception,  the  largest  insect  in  Europe.  Extremely 
broad  and  thick  of  body,  with  a  large  head,  and  a  short 
thick  proboscis  or  tongue,  it  bears  on  the  back  of  the 
thorax  a  conspicuous,  well-defined,  yellowish  blotch,  con- 
taining two  round  black  spots  and  some  dark  grey 
clouds,  not  inaptly  representing  the  face  of  a  human 
skull,  or  Death's  Head.  The  fore  wings  are  thick  and 
strong,  and  of  a  blackish  grey,  mottled  with  yellow  and 
red  ;  the  hind  ones  of  a  rich  brown -yellow  barred  with 
black,  and  with  these  wings  striking  aberrations,  when 
they  do  take  place,  seem  to  be  usually  connected. 

Similar  qualities  distinguish  the  larva.  It  also  is 
large  and  handsome,  solid  and  thick,  and  about  five 
inches  long,  and,  when  at  rest,  in  the  habit  of  raising 
its  anterior  segments  and  drawing  them  back,  in  assum- 
ing the  curious  sphinx-like  posture,  so  characteristic  of 
the  group.  Its  colour  is  green  or  yellow,  sprinkled  with 
numerous  small  black  or  purplish  dots,  and  with  seven 
broad  oblique  lateral  stripes  of  a  dull  blue  or  violet, 
extending  to  the  back,  where  they  meet 'in  an  angle; 
and  the  twelfth  segment  carries  the  horn,  which  is 
rough,  and  strangely  bent  downwards,  and  then  recurved 
again  at  the  tip.  But  this  is  a  most  variable  larva,  for 
specimens  are  occasionally  found  of  different  shades  of 
brown,  with  the  stripes  much  less  distinct,  or  even  white, 
and  sometimes  the  first  three  or  four  segments  have 
broad  whitish  stripes  and  patches,  and  instead  of  the 


232  TRUE   TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

usual  lateral  stripes,  a  chain  of  brown  diamond-shaped 
cross-bars. 

In  July  and  August  it  occurs  in  potato  fields,  busily 
engaged  in  devouring  the  leaves  ;  but  as  it  feeds  during 
the  night,  and  remains  hidden  low  down  on  the  stem 
throughout  the  day,  it  is  not  so  easily  discovered  as  its 
size  would  lead  one  to  imagine.  Formerly  scarce  in 
this  country,  since  the  cultivation  of  the  potato  it  has 
increased  considerably,  though  not  to  an  extent  sufficient 
to  do  any  real  harm.  But  in  the  event  of  the  potato 
being  destroyed  by  disease,  it  will  attack  other  plants, 
and  has  been  known  to  take  to  them  so  kindly  as  to 
refuse  the  potato  when  supplied  with  it.  It  also  lives 
naturally  on  the  tee-tree,  the  common  jasmine,  the 
deadly  nightshade,  woody  nightshade,  snowberry,  dog- 
wood, and  various  others  of  very  dissimilar  qualities. 
About  the  middle  of  August,  as  a  rule,  it  becomes  full- 
fed,  when  it  retires  into  the  ground  to  a  considerable 
depth,  and  forms  an  oval  cell,  carefully  smoothed  inside, 
wherein  to  undergo  its  destined  changes.  Owing  to 
delicacy  of  skin,  the  pupa  is  frequently  injured  when 
the  potatoes  are  dug  up  in  the  autumn,  and  without 
precautions,  disturbed  pupae  almost  invariably  succumb 
before  reaching  the  adult  state. 


THE  DEATH'S  HEAD  MOTH.  233 

The  Moth  has  a   Voice. 

Its  superior  dimensions  and  bulk  of  body,  and  the 
singular  markings  on  the  thorax,  which  bear  such  a 
wonderful  resemblance  to  a  human  skull,  conspire  to 
render  this  moth  a  most  remarkable  species,  but  it  is 
still  more  striking  and  unique  from  the  fact  of  possessing 
a  voice,  or  the  power  of  uttering  a  kind  of  shrill,  plain- 
tive, and  mournful  squeak,  somewhat  resembling  that 
of  a  mouse — a  peculiarity  appertaining  to  only  one  other 
species  of  the  family,  not  belonging  to  this  genus 
(Manduca).  While  both  sexes  can  produce  the  noise, 
and  some  individuals  do  so  with  the  greatest  readiness 
whenever  touched  or  disturbed,  nothing  will  induce  others 
to  make  it,  ever  so  faintly.  The  strange  cry  has  been 
long  known  to  naturalists,  and  the  question  of  its  origin 
has  given  rise  to  much  discussion.  Almost  innumerable 
theories  have  been  invented  to  account  for  this  appa- 
rently simple  phenomenon,  and  quite  a  literature  of  its  own 
has  accumulated  round  the  subject.  From  Reaumur 
downwards,  observer  after  observer  has  experimented 
with  the  view  of  ascertaining  the  exact  seat  of  the  sound. 
Some  have  attributed  it  to  the  same  cause  as  in  certain 
beetles,  the  friction  of  one  organ  against  another,  as  the 
rubbing  of  the  proboscis  against  the  palpi,  or  the  thorax 
against  the  first  segment  of  the  abdomen  ;  and  it  is 


234  TRUE   TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 

ascribed  to  the  forcible  expiration  of  air  through  the  tongue 
or  trunk  ;  and  it  is  said  that  bubbles  have  been  seen  to 
form  upon  the  tongue  when  the  moth  had  been  induced 
to  squeak  under  water.  A  large  dome- shaped  cavity  has 
been  shown  to  exist  in  the  head,  which,  by  the  alternate 
action  of  elevating  and  depressing  muscles,  is  caused  to 
act  as  a  bellows,  and  probably  inhales,  as  well  as  exhales, 
air  through  a  narrow  slit-like  aperture,  leading  to  the 
proboscis.  That  the  air  expelled  enters  the  cavity  from 
behind,  as  has  been  supposed,  is  hardly  likely,  for  the 
posterior  opening  is  small,  if  not  often  altogether  aborted, 
while  the  animal  can  still  squeak  if  its  abdomen  be 
removed.  At  the  narrow  slit-like  opening  the  note  is 
formed,  the  sound  being  modified  by  passage  through 
the  proboscis  tube. 

But  it  has  been  satisfactorily  proved  that  the  pupa 
has  the  power  of  squeaking  like  the  moth  shortly  before 
emergence,  and,  it  must  be  confessed,  it  is  difficult  to 
understand  how  the  methods  of  production  suggested 
can  operate  in  this  case.  Strange  to  say,  the  larva  has 
also  a  voice,  of  a  totally  different  nature  however,  being 
a  peculiar  grating  or  crackling  noise,  that  may  be  com- 
pared to  the  snap  that  accompanies  an  electric  spark, 
and  sometimes  the  noise  is  repeated  in  rapid  succession, 
resembling  that  occasioned  by  the  winding  up  of  a  watch. 
Cottagers  finding  the  caterpillar  have  described  it,  not 
inaptly,  as  biting  its  teeth  at  them.  There  is  no  doubt 


THE  DEATH'S  HEAD  MOTH.         235 

the  sound  is  of  a  defensive  character,  and  is  made  when 
the  animal  is  irritated  or  disturbed.  It  appears  to  result 
from  a  lateral  action  of  the  large  mandibles  or  jaws, 
which  are  furnished  on  their  outer  surface  with  some 
minute  prominences  ;  and  when  one  jaw  is  outside,  and 
passing  over  the  other,  it  is  momentarily  arrested  by 
the  prominence  of  the  latter,  and  falls  sharply  against 
its  outer  surface  towards  its  base,  the  sudden  jerk  and 
collision  between  the  two  hard  chitinous  substances 
probably  causing  the  sound. 


An  Object  of  Alarm  to  the  Superstitious. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  a  creature  invested  with  so 
many  startling  attributes  should  be  the  object  of  super- 
stitious beliefs  and  alarm  among  ignorant  country  folk. 
That  it  is  nocturnal  in  habit,  concealing  itself  in  some 
obscure  spot  during  the  day,  and  appearing  on  the  wing 
only  in  the  morning  and  evening  twilight,  serves  but  to 
intensify  the  unfounded  fear.  In  Eastern  Europe,  where 
some  years  it  is  extremely  abundant — so  much  so  as  to 
enter  houses,  and  at  times  extinguish  the  lights — it  is 
regarded  with  horror  as  an  evil  omen,  a  forerunner 
of  war,  pestilence,  famine,  and  death  to  man  and 
beast.  They  call  it  the  Death's  Head  Phantom  and 
Wandering  Death's  Bird  in  German  Poland,  convincing 


236  TRUE    TALES    OF  THE  INSECTS. 

evidence  of  the  light  in  which  it  is  held.  To  these 
fertile  imaginations,  the  grim  features  stamped  thereon 
represent  the  head  of  a  perfect  skeleton,  its  cry  becomes 
the  moan  of  anguish,  or  grief,  or  of  a  child  ;  the  very 
brilliancy  of  its  eyes  typifies  the  fiery  element  whence  it 
came,  for  they  implicitly  believe  it  to  be  a  messenger  of 
evil  spirits.  Once,  on  its  plentiful  occurrence  in  Brittany, 
a  country  prone  to  superstition,  it  created  the  greatest 
trepidation  among  the  inhabitants,  its  appearance  co- 
inciding with  a  disastrous  epidemic,  which  they  charged 
it  with  bringing,  or,  at  least,  that  it  came  to  announce 
the  fatal  malady.  An  idea  prevails,  among  the  Creoles 
especially,  that  it  is  very  dangerous,  in  that  the  dust 
cast  from  its  wings  in  flying  through  a  room  will  blind 
those  in  whose  eyes  it  falls,  and  thus  it  is  driven  forth 
by  every  means.  Even  some  parts  of  England  have 
the  saying  that  the  moth  is  in  collusion  with  witches, 
and  whispers  in  their  ear  the  name  of  the  person  for 
whom  the  tomb  is  about  to  open. 


As  a  "  Bee-robber:' 

Perhaps  owing  to  its  habit  of  flying  late  at  night,  it 
is  not  quite  clear  whether  or  no  it  gathers  food  from 
flowers.  It  is  seen  hovering  at  flowers,  it  is  said, 
though  rarely,  but  has  never  been  caught  while  so 


THE  DEATH'S  HEAD   MOTH.  237 

employed,  and  the  shortness  of  its  tongue  compels  us  to 
feel  rather  doubtful  of  its  capability  in  this  direction  ; 
some  suppose  it  to  suck  not  from  flowers,  but  the 
exuding  sap  of  trees.  However,  in  common  with  the 
predilection  of  most  Lepidoptera,  it  is  strongly  attracted 
by  honey,  and  apparently  appreciates  it  in  larger 
quantities  than  flowers  supply,  being  well  known  to 
enter  bee-hives  when  it  gets  a  chance.  It  has  been 
found  trying  to  gain  access  to  the  hives,  disposing  of  all 
doubts  as  to  the  habit,  and  once  inside,  its  task  must  be 
to  effect  the  enjoyment  of  its  meal  in  peace.  This 
inoffensive  creature,  its  thick  skin  and  downy  covering 
notwithstanding,  seems  absolutely  incapable  of  resisting 
its  armed  assailants.  Its  huge  size  may  scare  the  bees, 
and  its  stridulous  voice  has  been  thought  to  arrest  and  con- 
trol the  hostility  of  this  irritable  race,  in  a  manner  similar 
to  that  produced  by  the  song  of  their  queen.  If  this 
conjecture  be  correct,  we  may  ascribe  the  rare  instances 
in  which  the  moth  has  been  securely  fastened  down 
inside  the  hive  to  natural  death  of  the  moth  therein,  the 
bees,  being  unable  to  eject  so  bulky  an  object,  having 
taken  the  precaution  to  embalm  its  body  with  the 
glutinous  substance  called  propolis ;  indeed,  this  cir- 
cumstance could  not  well  occur  to  a  living  moth, 
ineffectual  though  it  be,  unless  it  were  completely 
stupefied  by  gorging  on  the  honey.  In  the  south  of 
Europe,  in  some  years,  it  becomes  very  injurious  in  this 


238  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE  INSECTS. 

way  to  bee-hives.  The  construction  of  modern  bee-hives 
keeps  it  out,  and  when  the  old-style  hives  are  used,  an 
efficacious  remedy  lies  to  hand,  by  covering  the  opening 
into  the  hive  with  wire  grating,  fine  enough  to  prevent 
the  entrance  of  insects  larger  than  its  rightful  inmates. 
According  to  some  Continental  apiarians,  the  bees  are 
aware  of  their  liability  to  the  intrusions  of  the  moth, 
and  when  located  in  the  old-fashioned  hive,  erect  a  kind 
of  fortification  at  the  portal,  including  a  narrow  and 
turned  passage,  through  which  it  would  be  impossible 
for  the  moth  to  squeeze,  while  it  is  equally  powerless  to 
force  its  way  through  by  biting. 

Essentially  a  creature  of  the  night,  the  Death's 
Head  Moth  can  hardly  be  roused  into  animation  in 
the  day ;  even  by  pinching,  and  throwing  it  into  the  air, 
it  can  only  be  induced,  and  that  in  sluggish  fashion,  to 
flutter  the  shortest  distance.  But  on  the  wing,  at  night, 
all  is  changed,  for  its  power  and  endurance  seem 
immense  ;  few  insects,  indeed,  possess  a  more  powerful 
and  sustained  flight.  It  is  often  met  with  by  ships  at 
sea,  to  gain  which  it  must  have  flown  hundreds  of  miles 
from  land.  A  specimen  flew  on  board  a  steamer  on 
her  voyage  from  Africa,  off  Cape  de  Verde  ;  and  one 
has  been  taken  by  a  fishing-boat  in  the  North  Sea, 
about  a  hundred  miles  east  of  May  Island  ;  and  when 
en  route  for  the  Amazons,  Wallace  and  Bates  anchored 
off  Salinas,  at  the  pilot-station  for  vessels  bound  for 


THE  DEATH'S  HEAD  MOTH.  239 

Para,  they  encountered  two  large  hawk-moths.  When 
pinched  the  moth  seems  able  to  exude  an  odour,  which 
may  be  compared  to  that  of  jasmine  or  musk. 


l^hat  it  is  Nomadic  in  Habit. 

From  this  discovery  of  the  moth  at  sea,  frequently 
at  a  considerable  distance  from  land,  and  in  situations 
where  it  is  impossible  to  suppose  its  presence  to  be 
involuntary,  there  seems  no  reason  to  doubt  that  it  is 
nomadic  in  habit.  It  is  an  insect  widely  distributed. 
It  is  found  over  the  whole  of  Europe,  in  Africa,  and 
Western  Asia,  and  in  the  eastern  part  of  that  continent 
is  represented  by  a  closely  allied  species  ;  the  genus, 
however,  does  not  appear  to  occur  in  America.  But 
while  it  has  this  wide  geographical  range,  extending 
throughout  Europe  and  Western  Asia  almost  to  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  colder  temperate  zone, 
probably  its  native  home  is  in  sub-tropical  regions  of 
India  and  Africa.  In  countries  or  districts  within  the 
colder  temperate  zone,  as  in  Europe,  its  occurrence  is 
of  a  somewhat  fluctuating  character ;  generally  it  is 
rather  scarce,  or  only  common  in  favourable  years.  In 
Great  Britain,  for  instance,  it  has  been  found  at  some 
time  or  other  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  country,  from 
Land's  End  even  to  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  Isles  ; 


24o  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 

but  with  one  or  two  notable  exceptions,  of  the  south  or 
south-eastern  counties,  where  it  is  claimed  to  be  observed 
almost  every  year,  the  records  show  its  appearance  to 
be  uncertain.  Roughly  speaking,  between  1865  and 
1885  there  was  a  period  of  a  few  years'  duration  when 
the  species  was  common,  followed  by  a  long  interval  of 
scarcity ;  then  the  moth  was  common  for  two  years  in 
succession ;  after  which,  for  a  protracted  time,  in  alter- 
nate years,  it  was  generally  scarce  or  locally  common, 
followed  again  by  an  abnormal  appearance  and  wide 
distribution.  No  doubt  our  entomological  records  are 
less  full  and  complete  than  they  might  be,  but  from  the 
observations  we  have,  it  is  quite  clear  that  the  species  is 
not  of  annual  occurrence,  but  decidedly  rare,  or  novel,  to 
many  localities.  All  the  facts  point  to  the  Death's  Head 
Moth  being  rather  a  wanderer  in,  than  a  denizen  of, 
the  greater  portion  of  Britain,  and  that  those  which  occur 
outside  the  one  or  two  counties  in  which  they  may  be 
said  to  be  constant,  are  either  migrants,  or  the  offspring 
of  migrants.  May  we  not  therefore  believe  that  the 
rare  specimens  taken  in  the  Orkneys,  Shetlands,  and 
such  outlying  portions  of  the  kingdom,  are  visitors  from 
the  mainland  (or  the  issue  of  these),  who,  in  this  case, 
obviously,  have  extended  their  rambles  far  from  the 
place  of  their  birth  ?  Conceding  nomadic  proclivities  to 
the  moth,  permits  of  us  likewise  easily  accounting  for 
its  excessive  abundance  in  certain  years  (otherwise  a 


THE  DEATH'S  HEAD  MOTH.  241 

difficult  problem  to  solve),  by  supposing  that  its  numbers 
are  at  such  times  largely  reinforced  by  immigrants  from 
the  Continent. 

This  subject  of  migration  of  Lepidoptera  is  beginning 
to  attract  the  attention  of  entomologists,  and  it  is 
expected  that  investigation  will  show  that  the  abun- 
dance or  scarcity  of  many  species,  besides  the  Death's 
Head  Moth,  is  largely  regulated  by  immigration.  It 
remains  for  the  future  to  disclose  what  are  all  the 
influences  which  cause  the  migration. 

Somewhat  unreliable  in  its  times  of  appearance  with 
us,  usually  the  moth  emerges  in  the  autumn,  in  Sep- 
tember or  October — September  appearing  to  be  pre- 
eminently the  month  when  it  is  on  the  wing — and 
probably  hybernates,  or  else  it  lies  in  pupa  through  the 
winter  ;  and  hybernated  specimens,  or  specimens  from 
hybernated  pupae,  are  sometimes  found  in  June.  In  a 
state  of  nature,  in  the  opinion  of  some  entomologists, 
the  moths  always  emerge  in  the  autumn,  but  when  the 
pupa  is  kept  under  artificial  conditions,  the  moth  often 
appears  in  spring.  Thus,  Atropos  seems  taken  from 
June  to  October  inclusive,  and  it  occasionally  appears  in 
November,  though  the  latter  date  is  exceptional.  As 
for  the  larva,  examples  almost  full-fed  have  been 
obtained  at  the  end  of  June  ;  the  latest  recorded  date 
is  October ;  but  July  and  August,  as  already  implied, 
appear  to  be  the  great  months  for  this  stage.  It  is 


242  TRUE    TALES   OF  THE   INSECTS. 

these  larvae  that,  under  favourable  circumstances,  pro- 
duce imagines  in  September.  The  time  of  duration  in 
pupa  thus  varies  exceedingly,  from  a  few  weeks,  as  in 
the  case  just  stated,  to  as  many  months,  in  the  case  of 
the  late  pupae,  whose  appearance  as  perfect  insects  is 
delayed  until  the  following  spring  or  summer. 

That  we  have  but  one  generation  of  Atropos  in  the 
year  is  generally  understood.  Yet  it  strikes  one,  that 
larvae  found  full-fed  as  early  as  June  must  surely  attain 
the  adult  state  before  September.  These  larvae  have 
probably  emerged  from  eggs  laid  by  moths  which  on 
occasions  are  seen  here  in  May,  and,  it  may  be  sug- 
gested, they  reach  maturity  by  July  or  August,  becoming 
in  their  turn  the  progenitors  of  the  late  September  and 
October  moths,  and  of  the  pupae  whose  development 
remains  in  abeyance  until  the  following  year.  Since 
hybernated  pupae  in  this  country  do  not  disclose  the 
moths  until  about  June,  in  all  probability  these  May 
moths,  the  parents  of  the  June  larvae,  are  immigrants. 


On  Rearing  the  Deaths  Head  Moth. 

The  pupae  of  Atropos,  we  have  seen,  are  tender, 
sensitive  subjects,  and  most  difficult  to  rear.  Putting 
things  at  their  best,  only  about  one  in  ten  emerges. 
Under  natural  conditions,  by  means  of  the  large 


THE  DEATH'S  HEAD   MOTH.  243 

chamber  of  the  soil,  and  gummy  secretion  spun  by  the 
larva,  the  pupa  evidently  obtains  freedom  from  irritation, 
and  a  more  equable  temperature  and  amount  of  moisture, 
and  the  reason  of  so  many  pupae  found  not  coming  to 
maturity  may  lie  in  the  very  fact  of  this  disturbance 
from  their  natural  position.  The  difficulty  of  rearing  is 
so  great  as  regards  those  that  do  not  turn  to  the  moth  in 
the  autumn,  that  one  of  various  plans  for  forcing  them 
out  is  usually  resorted  to,  as  to  keep  them  in  a  warm 
room,  or  even  near  a  fire,  always  covered  with  moss,  or 
like  porous  material,  which  is  kept  constantly  damp ;  or 
they  may  be  placed  in  bran,  or  fine  sawdust.  But 
probably,  after  all,  in  a  general  way,  if  simply  protected 
from  cold  and  left  undisturbed,  they  will  eventually  yield 
the  moths  as  well  as  if  put  through  a  course  of  "  forcing." 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  a  fact  that  the  moth  is  not 
nearly  so  often  met  with  as  the  larva.  It  may  be,  that 
while  pupae  from  British  parentage  require  only  pro- 
tection from  frost  to  bring  them  to  maturity,  pupae  which 
are  the  offspring  of  immigrants  die  unless  aided  by 
artificial  warmth. 

Due  to  the  frequency  of  its  death  before  completing 
its  tran formations,  indigenous  *  specimens  of  this  re- 
markable and  interesting  moth  are  still  deemed  by 
collectors  desirable  acquisitions. 

*  Moths  of  immigrant  parents  are  none  the  less  British  or  indigenous. 
Wherever  a  moth  naturally  effects  its  metamorphoses,  it  must  be  recog- 
nized as  belonging  to  the  fauna  of  that  country. 


INDEX 


Acridian  ears,  situation  of,  91 
different  forms  of,  91,  92 
forms  in  which  they  are  absent,  92 
found  in  both    sexes,    and    in    most 

species,  92 

function  difficult  to  determine,  92;  pos- 
sible solution  of  difficulty,  93 
in  Stenobothrus,  92 
minute  structure,  92 
Acridiidae,  prominent  characteristics,  82 
arranged  in  nine  tribes,  132 
escape  of  the  young  from  the  egg,  of 
Stauronotiis    maroccanus,    99 ;      of 
Rocky  Mountain  Locust,  100 
some  species  present  an  unusual  aspect, 

132 

Acridiides,  107.  108,  126,  133 
Acrophylla  titan,  46,  64 
Aellopos  titan,  shot  by  Bates  in  mistake 

for  a  humming-bird,  222 
Aeronaut,  locust  is  an,  86 
Affinities  in  nature,  the  series  of,  a  con- 
catenation or  continuous  series,  187 
Aggressive  Mimicry,  37 

Resemblances,  and  Protective,  25,  48, 
52,  60,  67,  132,  136,  139,  153,  154, 
183 


Air-sacs,  in  Acridiidae,  85 
absent  in  other  Orthoptera,  86 
Acridiidae  remarkable  amongst  Orthop- 
tera for,  85 
and  powers  of  flight  in  locust,  intimate 

association  of,  86 
arrangement     in     Rocky     Mountain 

Locust,  85 

found  in  various  insects,  85 
how  dilated,  86 

not  found  in  larvae,  nor  in  truly  apter- 
ous insects,  85 
use,  86 

Alluring  Colouration,  35 
Ambulicinae,  222 
Ameles,  prismatic  capsules  of,  20 
Amphibious    habits,   strange,    of    some 

Tettigides,  134 

Anabrus,  increase  to  large  numbers,  153 
Anatomy  of  Acridiidse,  83 
Animula   herrichii,   strange    larva  case 
of,  209 ;   huebneri,  its  larval   case, 
208 

Anisomorpha,  defence  of,  49,  5° 
Anostostoma,  the  curious  genus,  156 
Ants  as  locust  enemies,  130 
Apterous  Mantidae  and  Phasmidse  com- 
pared, 24 
Apterous  Phasmidae,  44,  46,  48,  59,  63 


246 


INDEX. 


Apuleius,   and   the  fable  of  Cupid  and 

Psyche,  163,  174 

Aschipasma,  absence  of  elytra  in,  43 
Asilus  flies,  as  locust  enemies,  129 
Ass,  "  the  Golden,"  163 
Atrophy  of  wings  of  Mantidse,  14 


B 


Bacillus,  the  genus,  76 

Bacteria  cornuta,  eggs  of,  53 

Barber,  Mrs.,  on  "  Voetgangers, "  117 

Bates,  on  Aellopos  titan,  its  resemblance 

to  a  humming-bird,  222 
his  encounter  of  hawk  moths  at  sea, 

238 

on  the  music  of  the  Tanana,  148 
Beauty  of  males  of  Psychidae,  probable 

cause  of  disappearance  of,  214 
Bee  Hawk  Moths,  222,  229 
Bee-Robber,  Death's  Head  Moth  as  a, 

236 

Bees,  Death's  Head  Moth  and,  237,  238 
that  stridulous  voice  of  Death's  Head 

Moth  controls,  237 

Boisduval  on  beauty  of  the  Uraniidae,  194 
on     division     of     Lepidoptera      into 

Rhopalocera  and  Heterocera,  185 
Brachystola  magna,  the  "  buffalo-hopper  " 

or  "  lubber  grasshopper,"  140 
Bradley,   Richard,  en  the  Walking-Leaf 

Insects,  72 
Brongniart,  on  the  name  Eumegalodon, 

159 
on    post-embryonic     development    of 

Sch  istocerca  peregrina,  I  o  I 
on  Protophasmidae,  78 
Brough,  Mr.,  on  a  species  of  Weta  from 

Nelson,  158 
Brunner,    L.,  on    colour    difference    of 

Oedipodides        correlative         with 

locality,  136 
Buller,  Sir  W.,  on  the  "  Wetas,"  157 


Butterflies,   the    most   beautiful    of   all 

insects,  176 

favourite  resorts,  176,  178 
interesting  habits,  178-180 
like  choice  beds  of  flowers  on  the 

moist  sand,  179 

not  only  gregarious,  but  migratory,  179 
of  a  quarrelsome  disposition,  180 
peculiarities  of  highest  interest  in,  181 
twilight  flyers,  180 
Butterfly   life,   immense    variety   of,    in 

equatorial  zone,  176 


Calasymbolus    and     Paonias,   extremely 

beautiful  genera,  228 
Callidryas  gathering  in  dense  masses  on 

ground,  179 

Caloptenus  spretus.     See   Rocky  Moun- 
tain Locust 

Capsule,  egg,    of  Mantis  religiosa,  de- 
scription of,  17 
consistency,  19 

explanation  of  manner  of  formation,  20 
situation    of  the    eggs  ;    the    median 

chamber,  18 
subsidiary  parts,  19 
Capsules,  egg,  of  Mantidge,  16 
Carabidae  as  locust  enemies,  129 
Case  Moths,  in  structure  of  female  and 
in  habit    the    strangest    and    most 
abnormal  of  all   Lepidoptera,  204, 
205 
females  have  become  degenerate,  204 

214,  216,  217 

Cases,  larval,  of  Psychidse,  205  ;  enlarge- 
ment, repair,  locomotion,  temporary 
suspension,  complete  withdrawal, 
mode  of  moving  and  retaining  posi- 
tion within  case,  209-211 
abundance  of,  214  ;  singular  rarity  of 
moths  considering  abundance  of 
cases,  215,  216 


INDEX. 


247 


Castnia,  the  genus,  187 

Fabricius  on,  188 
Castniidae,   an  abnormal    collection    of 

pretty  insects,  185,  187 
and  Uraniidae,  185 
geographical  range,  190 
have  most  affinities  with  moths,  187 
in      some      respects     combine      the 
characters     of    both    lepidopterous 
divisions,  187-190 
Caudal  horn  of  Sphingidse,  220,  226 
Cave-dwellers,  156 
Cecidomyia,  galls  of,  on  willows,  143 

eggs  of  Locustidae  laid  in,  143 
Ceroys,  a  Peruvian,  65 

from  Nicaragua,  65 

Chaeradodis,  special   Protective   Resem- 
blance of,  30,  31 
where  found,  31 
Chcerocampa  cekrio,  229 
Chcerocampinse,  222,  224,  225,  228,  229 
chiefly  remarkable  for  power  of  swift 
and  long-sustained  flight,  223 
Change  of  colour,  in  Phasmidae,  44,  57, 

102 

in  Acridiidae,  101 
Characteristics  and  habits  of  Phasmidae, 

44 

Phasmidae  are  herbivorous,  45 
Phasmidae  are  sensitive  to  cold,  44 
Chrysiridia  madagascariensis ,  200 
Cladonotus  humbertianus,  134 
Cocytius  cluentius,  its  long  proboscis,  224 
Colour  changes  in  course  of  development 

in  Orthoptera,  102 
of  Schistocerca  peregrina,  101 
of  some   Phasmidae  of  the  Phyllium 

group,  57,  102 

Community  of  Descent,  Darwinian  doc- 
trine of,  a  strong  argument  in  favour 
of,  187 
Conocephalides,  141,  159 

their  head-ornament,  141 
Coptopteryx  females,  14,  24 


|  Cry,  singular,  produced  by  Death's  Head 
Moth,  233  ;  theories  to  account  for 
phenomenon,  233-235 
Cupid  and  Psyche,  fable  of,  163,  1 74    t 
Cursoria  and  Saltatoria,  the  series,  81 


D 


I  Dapptda  tertia,  213 
Day-flying  moths,  184 

migratory  habits,  201 
Death  of  Mantidae,  17,  21 
Death's    Head  Hawk  Moth,  225,  230; 
larva,  appearance,   food,   231,   232  ; 
pupation,  232,  241-243 
an  object  of  alarm  to  the  superstitious, 

235 

as  a  bee-robber,  236 
at  sea,  238,  239,  241 
is  sluggish,  238 
its  cry,  theories  put  forward  to  account 

for,  233,  234 

its  grim  feature,  231,  233,  236 
of  superior  dimensions,  of  nocturnal 

habit,  230,  231,  233,  235,  236,  238 
on  rearing,  232,  242 
sound  emitted  by  pupa,  234;  by  larva, 

its  nature  and  cause,  234,  235 
that  it  is  nomadic  in  habit,  239 
times  of  appearance,  232,  241,  242 
Defence,  means  of,  25,  48,  49,  66.  67, 

132,  136,  139,  153.  155,  '57,  158 
aquatic  habits,  50 
immobility,  45 

power  of  ejecting  nauseous  fluid,  49, 155 
prickles  and  spines,  49 
Defence,  positive,  of  Locustidae,  154 
Deinacrida,  the  curious  genus,  156 
brought,  i  ^8 

keteracantha,  156  ;  its  size,  157  ;  food, 
and  other  habits,  157  j  clicking  noise 
produced,  157 
megacephala,  157 


248 


INDEX. 


Deinacrida  thoracica,  157 

Deroplatys,  strange  leaf-like  appendages, 

30,31 

Development  of  Mantidse,  21 
Devil's  Riding-Horse.     See  Mantis 
Diapheromera  femorata,  ravages  of,  45 
eggs  of,  their  deposition,  52-54 
possesses  gregarious  tastes,  48 
post-embryonic  development,  56 
Digger- Wasps,  as  locust-enemies,  129 
Dilatable  tracheae,  87 
Dipterous  parasites  of  Acridiidse,  98,  130, 

131 

Disappearance    of  locusts  from    a   spot 
invaded  apparently  inexplicable,  1 16 
Dolichopoda  palpata,  a  cave-dweller,  156 
Dragon  flies  as  locust  enemies,  130 


Ears,  Acridian,  91 

of  Locustidae,  145 
Egg-capsules  of  Mantidse,  16 
Egg-enemies  of  Acridiidse,  97 

Anthomyia  egg-parasite,  98 

birds  and  mammals,  98 

Cantharidse,  97 

dipterous  genus  Idia,  98 

Locust-mite,  98 

Muscinse,  98 

two-winged  flies  of  family  Bombyliidse, 

98 
Egg-laying  of  Mantidse,  16 

of  Phasmidse,  53 
Egg-masses  of  Acridiidse,  details  of,  95, 

96 

Eggs  of  Phasmidse,  remarkable  nature  of, 
52 

each  egg  really  a  capsule  containing  an 
egg,  53 

manner  of  deposition,  53 

number  produced,  54 

scramble  out  of,  change  during,  55 


Eggs  of  Phasmidse,  their  resemblance  to 
seeds,  52  ;  specially  exemplified  in 
the  eggs  of  Phyllium,  54,  55 
time  of  laying,  54 

Elephant   Hawk    Moths.      See    Choero- 
campinae 

Ellema  harrisii,  its  short  tongue,  224 

Emeralds.     See  Uraniidse 

Enemies  of  the  locust,  97,  127,  129 
invertebrate,    97,    129;   animals    that 
feed   upon  the  locust,  or  are  para- 
sitic externally,    129 ;  animals  that 
prey  upon  the  locust  internally,  130 
vertebrate,  98,  127  ;  Locust  Birds,  127  ; 
various  vertebrates,  98,  128 

Entometa  ignobilis.     See  Lictor  Moth 

Ephippigerides,  organs  of  stridulation,  147 

Eremiaphila,  first  discovered  by  Savigny, 
28 

Eremobiens,  137,  140;  modified  to  extra- 
ordinary extent  for  desert  life,  137 

Eugaster  guyonii,  its  defensive  fluid,  155 
its  stridulation,  unlike  ordinary  forms, 

155 

Eumegalodonidse,  159 
Extatosoma,  an  ugly  monster,  49,  65 


Fabricius  on  the  genus  Urania,  194 
Females  of  Psychidae,  204,  206,  214,  216 

change  to  imago,   206,    216;    death, 
206,  218 

perpetual  prisoners,  206,  216 
Fossil  Phasmidse,  78 


Galls,  deposition  of  eggs  in,  oiMeconema 
varium,  143  ;  of  Xiphidium  ensife- 
rum,  143,  144 


INDEX. 


249 


Geographical   distribution    of  Mantidse, 

38;  is  very  clearly  defined,  39 
"Golden  Ass,"  the,  163 
Gomphocerus,  the  genus,  140 
Gongylus,  30,  35  ;  simulation  to  flowers, 

37 
Graber,  on  musical  organs  of  females  of 

Acridiidse,  91 
Graeffea  coccophagus,    ejection   of  fluid, 

49  ;  ravages  of,  45 
Green  grasshoppers,  141 
Ground  species  of  Mantidse,  modifications 

of  forms  in  general  of,  28,  29 
Eremiaphila,  28 


H 


Hair-streaks  (Theclae),  178 
Haldmanella,  140 
Hawk  Moths.     See  Sphingidae 
as  wind  visitors,  229 
highly  specialized  condition  of  some  of 
the  structural  characters  of  peculiar 
interest,  220 
leading  characteristics  of  this  favourite 

group,  219 
Head  and  sense  organs  of  Mantidse,  12, 

13 
Hemaris.     See  Bee  Hawk  Moths 

diffinis,  228 
Henneguy,  on  the  eggs  of  tPhy  Ilium  cruri- 

foliiim,  55 
Hetaira  esmeralda,  a  clear-wing  butterfly, 

177 
Heteropteryx,  its  prickles  and  spines,  49, 

65 
Hymenopus  bicornis,  alluring    colouring 

of,  36 


Ichneumonidoe,  no  member  of  the  family 
attacks  locusts,  132 


Immobility,  a  means  of  defence,  48,  49 
of  Phasmidae,  reasons  and  use  thereof, 
45 

K 

Kallima,  perfect  Protective  Resemblance 

of,  183    ;; 

inachis,  183 
paralekta,  183 

Katydids,  their  music,  149,  154 
as  pets,  150;   results  of  confinement, 

153 

have  both  a  day  and  a  night  song,  150 

their  pertinacity,  150 
Kiinckel  d'Herculais,  on  process  of  hatch- 
ing of  Stauronotus  maroccanus,  99 

on  dipterous  parasites  of  Stauronotus 
maroccanus  and  other  Acridiidse,  98, 

on  the  Bombylid  larvoe  in  the  ova  of 
Stauronotus  maroccanus^  98 


"  Leaf-butterflies,"  182 
Kallima  inachis,  183 
Kallima  paralekta,  1 83 
' '  Leaf-insects, "    resemblance    to   leaves 
displayed     by    tegmina,    by    other 
parts,  67-69 
leaf-like  tegmina    possessed    only   by 

female,  70 

Lefebvre,  on  the  genus  Eremiaphila,  28 
Leg  of  an  insect,  typical  development,  9 
Legs,  front,  of  Mantis,  modification  of  in 

detail,  9 

principal  function,  10 
secondary  functions,  1 1 
the  limb  in  repose,  1 1 
intermediate    and    posterior    legs     of 

Mantis,  II 

Lepidoptera,  163,  176,  184,  203,  219,  230 
antennas  of,  unsatisfactory  as  a  classi- 
ficatory  basis,  185,  186 


250 


INDEX. 


Lepidoptera,  no  one  set  of  characters 
will  serve  as  an  infallible  guide  to 
distinguish  moths  from  butterflies, 
1 86 

Rhopalocera  and  Heterocera,  184,  185 

spine  or  spring  on  hind  wings  unsatis- 
factory as  a  classificatory  basis,  186 
Lictor  Moth,  its  larval  case,  208,  212; 

abundance  of  cases,  215 
Locusta  viridissima,  its  colour  in  assimila- 
tion with  surroundings,  153 

musical  organs,  147;  stridulation,  148 
Locustidae  prominent  characters,  82,  141  ; 
absence  of  air-vesicles  connected 
with  tracheal  system,  peculiar  head- 
ornament,  ocelli  generally  imperfect, 
ovipositor,  141,  142 

chiefly  nocturnal,  148 

defence  of  a  positive  nature,  154 

each  species  may  ordinarily  be  distin- 
guished by  its  peculiar  note,  148 

food-habits,  153 

life-histories,  142  ;  oviposition  in  earth, 
in  plants,  142-144 

of  a  somewhat  sedentary  nature,  148 

Protective  Resemblance,  153  ;  perfec- 
tion of  resemblance  of  tegmina  to 
leaves,  154 

readily  distinguished  from  Acridiidee, 
82,  141 

remarkable  forms,  156-159 

resemblance  to  Stick-insects,  155 
Locusts,  properly  so-called,  106,  107 

their  flight  dependent  on  the  wind,  86, 

115,  116,  123,  124,  126 
"Lubber      grasshopper,"       the.        See 
Brachystola  mcigtia 


M 


Macleay,  that  the  minor  natural  groups 
of  Lepidoptera  often  keep  very 
constant  to  the  same  natural  group 
of  plants,  200 


Macleay,  on  a  species  of  Urania  flitting 

about  a  grove  of  Pandanus,  200 
Macroglossinse,  complete  resemblance  to 

humming-birds,  221 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  series  Sphin- 

gidae,    222 
Manducinse,  225 
Manduca  atropos.     See  Death's  Head 

Moth 
Mantidse,  as  locust-enemies,  130 

females  compared  with  males,  14,  15 
striking  characteristics,  9,  1 1 
voracity  not  limited  to  insects,  8 
Mantis  religiosat  devotional  attitude,  3  ; 

meaning  of  habit,  6 
Brazilian  name  for,  5  ;  not  the  saint 
but  the  tiger  of  the  insect  world,  5,  6 
geographical  distribution,  40 
interesting  mode  of  capture  of  prey,  6 
metamorphoses,  21 
name  not  indicative  of  pursuits,  5 
pugnacious  propensities  appreciated  by 

Chinese,  8  ;  and  cannabalism,  8 
the  subject  of  legends  and  superstitions, 

3 
Meconema  varium,  deposition  of  its  eggs 

in  galls,  143 
Mecostethus,  ears  in,  92 
Megalodon,  the  genus,  159 
Megathymus  yttcca,  the  Yucca  Borer,  an 
interesting  aberrant  form,  190 ;   re- 
garded by  some  as  a  genuine  butter- 
fly, 190 

depredations  for  which  famed,  190,  192 
funnel-like  tube  characteristic  of  larva, 

192,  193 

habitat,  appearance,  habits,  190-192 
white  powdery  bloom,  its  use,  192,  193 
Meso-thorax  frequently  of  extraordinary 

length  in  Phasmidse,  42 
Metamorphoses  of  Mantidce,  21 
development  of  organs  of  flight,  24 
interesting  life  and  habits  of  the  young, 
their  moults,  attitudes,  food,  etc.,  22 


INDEX. 


251 


Metamorphoses  of  Mantidae,  hatching  of 

larva,  time  of,  21 
number  of  larvae  yielded  by  a  single 

capsule,  22 

nymph     state    compared     with    sub- 
apterous  or  apterous  adults,  24 
time     occupied     in     metamorphoses, 

21 
"Metamorphoses,"    the,     or    "Golden 

Ass,"  163 

Methone  anderssoni,  137,  140 
Metura    elongata,     a    most    interesting 

architect,  208 
strange  female  of,  2 1 7 
striking  cases  of,  208,  209.  215 
Microcentrum   retineme,    eggs    of,    144 ; 

metamorphoses,  144,  145 
curious  habits,  150 
music,  149,  150 

Migration  of  Butterflies,  179;  of  Day- 
flying  Moths,  201 ;  of  Lepidoptera 
generally,  241 

of  Locusts,  109  ;  laws  governing,  III; 
phenomenon  explained  by  excessive 
multiplication,  111,113;  other  causes, 
remote,  immediate,  113;  remarkable 
manifestations  of  instinct  attend, 
locusts  take  direction  of  predecessors, 
trial  flights,  locusts  wait  for  change 
when  wind  unfavourable,  115  ;  dis- 
appearance of  locusts  from  a  spot 
invaded  apparently  inexplicable, 
116;  distance  to  which  swarms 
may  migrate,  123;  length  of  single 
flight,  123  ;  facts  in  proof  of  power 
of  prolonged  flight,  124-126 
Migratory,  most  species  of  Acridiidae  not, 

106 
disposition,  not  caused  by  anatomical 

differences,  108 

locusts,  habits  and  natural  history,  109; 
ravaging  power  of,  109  ;  huge  size 
of  swarms,  109  ;  famine  and  pesti- 
lence result  of  a  swarm,  1 10 


Migratory  species,  exist  in  countries  with- 
out giving  rise  to  swarms,  108 ;  pene- 
trate to  our  shores,  108 
species  of  Acridiidae  ascertained  to  be, 
of  the  Old  World,  107  ;.  of  the  New 
World,  107 
Mimetic   resemblance   of  Phyllium,  67, 

68 

Mimicry  of  Phasmidse,  end  gained  by,  66 
is  purely  defensive,  66 
perhaps  no  other  group  in  form  and 

colour  so  generally  imitative,  67 
Morphidae,  177 
Murray,  on  Phyllium,  56,  58,  74 

on   the   eggs   of   Phyllium    scythe  in 
Royal  Botanic  Garden,  Edinburgh, 

54 
Music  of  Acridiidae,  88 

of  Locustidae,  how  produced,  147,  149 
Musical  organs  of  Locustidae,  situation, 

structure,  147 
found  usually  only  in  male,  147 


N 


Nervous  system,  in  Acridiidae,  87,  88 

the  "  brain,"  87 

Nomadic  in   habit,  that    Death's   Head 
Moth  is,  239 


Oedipodides,  107,  126,  132,  136,  137 
Eremobiens,  137 
includes  most  of  the  species  of  migratory 

locusts  of  the  Old  World,  107,  136 
winged,  striking  cases  of  colour  differ- 
ence, is  correlative  with  locality,  136 
OikttMis  kirbii,  female  imago  of,  217 
Orange  river,  attempted  crossing  of,  by 
"  Voetgangers,"  121 


252 


INDEX. 


Organization  of  Mantidae,  as  a  whole,  12 
is  in  conformity  with  a  carnivorous  life, 

9,  12,  13 
is  superior,  12 

Organs  of  flight  of  Mantidae,  13 
Ornithoptera,    the   Bird- winged   Butter- 
flies, 177,  181 

Oviposition  in   Acridiidae,  94 ;  gonapo- 
physes,    deposition   of  eggs,  use  of 
fluid  discharged,  soil  preferred,  time 
required  for,  extent  of  period,  number 
of  egg-masses,  95,  96 
in  Mantidae,  16 
in  Phasmidae,  53-55 


Pachytylus  cinerascens,  107,  108 
marmoratTiS)  107 
migratorius,  107,  108 
Packard,  on  arrangement  of  air-sacs  in 

Rocky  Mountain  Locust,  85 
Pages.     See  Uraniidae 
Pamphagides,  135 

Saussure,   de,   on   their    geographical 

distribution,  136 
Paonias    and    .Calasymbolus,   extremely 

beautiful  genera,  228 
Papilio  memnon,  remarkable  variety   in 

the  form  of  the  females,  181,  182 
Papilios     in     Nicaragua,     sucking     up 

moisture,  178 
Parasites,  of  eggs  of  Mantidae,  21 

of  eggs  of  Acridiidse,  98 
Peringueyella,  its  slender  stick-like  forms, 

155 

Periodicity,   no    law  of,   governing  de- 
structive flights  of  locusts,  in 
Phantasis,  absence  of  elytra  in,  43 
Phasmidae,  general  peculiarities,  41 
appearance  grotesque,  41 
distribution  of,  76 
enemies  of,  48 


Phasmidse,   marvellous   imitative  resem- 
blance of  vegetative  objects,  60 
modification  for  aquatic  life,  50 
Phylliides,  the  tribe,  41,  68 
Phyllium,  moults  of,  56-58 
number  of  species  known,  68 
seasonal  change  of  colour  in,  57,  102 
specimens  exhibited  in  Paris,  74 
the  genus  confined  to  tropics  of  Old 

World,  68 

Plant  Types  of  Mantidae,  26 
their  presentment  of  the  phenomenon 
of  Protective   and   Aggressive    Re- 
semblance, 25-27,  30,  35 
Pneumorides,  132,  134 

Pneitmora  scutellaris,  135 
Podacanthus,  47,  64,  76 
Post-embryonic   development,    of   Acri- 
diidae,   101  ;    change    of    colour    in 
course  of  development,  101,  102 
of  Phasmidae,  56  ;  number  of  moults, 

56 
I   Poulton  on  disappearance  of  beauty  of 

male  Moths,  214 
Prisopi,  the,  aquatic  habits  of,  50 
Prochilus  australis,  resemblance  to  Phas- 
midae, 155 
Proscopides,  132 

Protective  and  Aggressive  Resemblance 
of  Orthoptera,  25,  60,  67,  132,  136, 

139,  153,  154 
Prothorax  of  Mantidae,  modification  of, 

II 
its  development  shows  its  importance, 

12 

its  remarkable  elongation  and  mobility, 

I  r,  12  ;  to  what  due,  12 
Psychidae,  the  Case  Moths,  203 

change  to  imago,  206,  211,  216;  sup- 
posed assistance  of  long  sticks  at 
event,  212  ;  subsequent  life  of  male, 
and  general  characters,  212,  213 

coming  of  age  of  male,  preparation  for 
pupal  sleep,  211 


INDEX. 


253 


Psychidse,  females  are  perpetual  prisoners 
within  larva  habitaculum,  206,  216, 
218 

larvse  subject  to  attacks  of  parasites, 
215 

probable   cause   of   disappearance    of 
beauty  in  male,  214 

singular   rarity   of  moths   considering 
abundance  of  cases,  214,  215 

strangely  difficult  to  rear,  215 

want  of  homogeneousness  in   perfect 

state  of  insects  of  this  group,  213 
Pterochroza,  the  genus,  wonderful  pro- 
tective resemblance  of,  154 
Ptilota  of  Aristotle,  the,  203 


R 


Rachitic  condition  of  locusts,  cause  of, 

130,  131 
Reaumur,  the    earliest  writer  on  sound 

made  by  Death's  Head  Moth,  233 
Rearing  Death's  Head  Moth,  difficulty 

of,  232,  242 
Riley,  on  hatching  of  Rocky  Mountain 

Locust,  100 

on  music  of  Locustidse,  148,  149 
on  music  of  Microcentrum  retinerve, 
149  ;  on  its  interesting  habits,  150  f 
Rocky  Mountain  Locust,  arrangement  of 

air-sacs  in,  85 
appearance,  108 
extent  of  period  of  oviposition,  96  ; 

number  of  egg-masses,  96 
migratory  habit,  108 
process  of  hatching,  100 


Sack-bearers,  young,  at  home,  206 
ingenuity  in  construction  of  cases,  206, 
208,  209 


Sacktragers,  204 

Sagides,  some  members  of,  155 

Saltatoria,  term  "  grasshopper  "  applied 

to  two  families  of,  82 
Saussure,  de,  on  slender  stick-like  forms 

in  the  genus  Peringueyella,  155 
on  oceans  being  impassable  to  locusts, 

126 

on  Oedipodides,  126 
on    the    geographical    distribution    of 

Pamphagides,  136 

Savigny,  on  the  genus  Eremiaphila,  28 
Schistocerca  americana,  107 
peregrina,  perhaps  originally  native  to 

America,  126 
distribution,  107 
may  deposit  eggs  at  more  than  one 

spot  during  migration,  96 
occasionally  penetrates  to  our  shores, 

108;  crossing  the  ocean,  108,  126 
post-embryonic  development,  101 
Schizodactylus  monstrosus,  158 
Scorpions,  as  locust-enemies,  129 
Scudder,  on  the  song  of  Katydids,  150 
on  the  music  of  the  Stenobothri,  90 
on  the  Protophasmidae,  79 
Sea,  Death's  Head  Moth  at,  238,  239,  241 
Seas,  that  locusts  traverse,  of  consider- 
able width,  108,  125,  126 
Sense-organs,  in  Acridiidse,  83,  84,  91  ; 
sense  of  sight,  of  sound,  of  touch, 
and  taste,  84,  92 
in  Locustidse,  141,  145 
Sloane's,   Sir  Hans,   history,  on  locusts 

crossing  the  ocean,  126 
Smerinthinse,  224,  225,  227,  228 
Song,  gift  of,  Acridiidse  remarkable  for,  88 
apparatus  for  producing  sound,  88,  89 
in  aberrant  forms  of  Acridiidse,  88,  135, 

137 

music  characteristic  of  male,  90 
of  importance  to  Acridiidse,  88 
Sound  emitted  by  Death's  Head  Moth, 

233>  236 


254 


INDEX. 


Sound    emitted  by    larva  of,    234 ;    its 

nature  and  cause,  234,  235 
by  pupa  of,  234 

Special  Protective  and  Aggressive  Re- 
semblance,   beautiful  examples    of, 
30,  35'  52»  60,  67,  132,  139,  154,  183 
Spectre,  the  pink-winged,  64 
Sphingidae,  their  antennae,  185,  219 
have  their  metropolis  in  the  tropics,  228 
occasional  visitors  from  sunny  climes, 

229 

pupation  of,  220,  224,  225,  227 
sub-families  of,  220  ;    Macroglossinae, 
Chcerocampinae,  Ambulicinae,  Sphin- 
ginse,  Manducinae,  Smerinthinae,  220 
the  natural  position  of  the,  226 
Sphinginae,      extraordinary     length     of 

tongue,  224 

Sphinx-like  attitude  of  larvae  of  Sphin- 
gidae, 220 

Spiders  as  locust-enemies,  129 
Spine,  posterior,  or  caudal  horn  of  larvae 

of  Sphingidae,  220,  226 
Stauronotus     maroccamts,     method     of 

hatching,  99 ;  the  ampulla,  99,  100 
egg-parasites  of,  98 
Stenobothrus,  music  of,  89-91,  138,  140 

ears  of,  92 

Stridulating  apparatus  in  Acridiidae,  89, 
I35»  *37  J  in  the  female,  90,  91,  138 
Stridulation  of  Acridiidae,  b8,  135,  137 
during  flight,  91 
of  Locustidse,  147 
specially  characteristic    of   male,  90, 

135,  138,  H7 
Superstitions,  relating  to  Death's  Head 

Moth,  235 
to  Mantidae,  3 
Swainson   on    migration    of    Day-flying 

Moths,  201 
Symbols  of  Psyche,  163,  176 

their  conspicuous   beauty   and    abun- 
dance, 176 
Synemon,  the  genus,  190 


Tachina-flies,  as  locust-enemies,  114,  130, 

I3i 
annoyances  of,  as  one  of  the  causes  of 

locust  migration,  1 14 
Xanana,    its   extraordinary   music,    148 ; 

kept  in  cages  for  sake  of  its  song, 

148,  150 

Tegmen  of  the  female  Phyllium,  an  ex- 
ceptional structure,  70 
Tegmina  in  Phasmidae,  usually  of  small 

size  or  absent,  42,  43 
attached  to   posterior   part  of  meso- 

thorax,  42,  43 
Tettigides,  132-134 
Tettix,  the  genus,  134,  140 
Tibial  ears,  145 

two   principal   kinds,   145  ;    structure, 

145,  146;  function,  146 
Tiger-beetles  as  locust-enemies,  129 
Trachypetra  bufo,  Trimen  on,  139 
Trap-door  spiders  as  locust-enemies,  129 
Trimen  on  Trachypetra  bufo,  139 
Tropidoderus,  47,  64 
Tryxalide?,  133,  155 

resemblance   to,  of  slender  stick-like 

forms  in  the  genus  Peringueyella,  155 
Twilight  fliers,  butterflies  as,  180 
Tyndall  on  sound,  94 


U 


Urania  boisduvalii^  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  Lepidoptera  known,  195, 
196 

egg-laying,  larva,  imago,  197-199 
inhabits  Cuba,  195,  197,  199 
braziliensis,  its  migration,  200,  201 
fulgens,  its  migration,  200,  201 
leilus,  200 
sloanuS)  200 

Uraniidae,  the  brilliant,  185,  194 
proved  to  belong  to  the  Heterocera,i94 


INDEX. 


255 


Vaal   river,  crossed  by  "  Voetgangers," 

118 
"Voetgangers,"    interesting    points    in 

their  natural  history,  1 1 7 
on  attaining  maturity,  123 
their  manner  of  travelling,  117,  118; 
no  obstacle  stays  their  course,  how 
they  cross  rivers,  their  methods  in 
water,  118,  121,  122 


Wallace,  Dr.,  on  Alluring  Colouration, 

35 
on  Walking-sticks  proper,  63 

"  Weta-punga,"  the,  156 

Wetas,  the,  an  interesting  group  inhabit- 
ing New  Zealand,  156-158 

Wingless  locusts,  how  they  cross  rivers, 
118,  121,  122,  126 

Wings,    hind,    in    Phasmidoe,    may    be 

largely  developed,  43,  46,  64,  67 
interesting  provision  for  their  defence, 
43 


W 


Walking-sticks  proper,   41,   44-46,   48, 

63  ;  Wallace  on,  63 
beautiful  and  giant-winged  forms,  46, 

64,  67 

bizarre  shapes,  41,  65 
that    they  are    a    singularly    isolated 

group,  79 
that  they  come  of  a  remote  antiquity, 

78 

Wallace,  Dr.,  and  Bates,  their  encounter 
of  Hawk  Moths  at  sea,  238 


X 


Xerophyllum,  the  genus,  134 

Xiphidium  ensiferum,   deposition  of  its 

eggs  in  galls,  143,  144 
time  required  for  embryonic  develop- 
ment, 144 ;   for  post-embryonic  de- 
velopment, 144 


Yucca  Borer,  the,  190 


THE   END. 


PRINTED   BY  WILLIAM   CLOWES   AND   SONS,    LIMITED,    LONDON   AND    BECCLES. 


14  DAY  USE 

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APR  29 '58 


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LD  21-50m-8,'67 

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